Safety zones (SZs) are critical tools that can be used by wildland firefighters to avoid injury or fatality when engaging a fire. Effective SZs provide safe separation distance (SSD) from surrounding flames, ensuring that a fire’s heat cannot cause burn injury to firefighters within the SZ. Evaluating SSD on the ground can be challenging, and underestimating SSD can be fatal. We introduce a new online tool for mapping SSD based on vegetation height, terrain slope, wind speed, and burning condition: the Safe Separation Distance Evaluator (SSDE). It allows users to draw a potential SZ polygon and estimate SSD and the extent to which that SZ polygon may be suitable, given the local landscape, weather, and fire conditions. We begin by describing the algorithm that underlies SSDE. Given the importance of vegetation height for assessing SSD, we then describe an analysis that compares LANDFIRE Existing Vegetation Height and a recent Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) satellite image-driven forest height dataset to vegetation heights derived from airborne lidar data in three areas of the Western US. This analysis revealed that both LANDFIRE and GEDI/Landsat tended to underestimate vegetation heights, which translates into an underestimation of SSD. To rectify this underestimation, we performed a bias-correction procedure that adjusted vegetation heights to more closely resemble those of the lidar data. SSDE is a tool that can provide valuable safety information to wildland fire personnel who are charged with the critical responsibility of protecting the public and landscapes from increasingly intense and frequent fires in a changing climate. However, as it is based on data that possess inherent uncertainty, it is essential that all SZ polygons evaluated using SSDE are validated on the ground prior to use.
This paper examines the effect of biomass burning on adolescent health in India. The biomass burning problem is quite acute especially in North India, with some states experiencing forest fires and few states actively engaging in crop burning practice. We combine remote sensing data on biomass burning events with a pan-India survey on teenage girls (TAG survey). We exploit regional and temporal variation in our data to establish the link between occurrence of extremely high levels of biomass burning during early life and adolescent height for girls in India. Our results indicate that exposure to extremely high level of biomass burning during prenatal and postnatal period is associated with lower height (by 0.7 percent or 1.07 cm) later in life. Girls from North India are found to be especially vulnerable to the harmful effects of exposure to biomass burning. (c) 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Smoke from wildfires is a growing health risk across the US. Understanding the spatial and temporal patterns of such exposure and its population health impacts requires separating smoke-driven pollutants from non-smoke pollutants and a long time series to quantify patterns and measure health impacts. We develop a parsimonious and accurate machine learning model of daily wildfire-driven PM(2.5) concentrations using a combination of ground, satellite, and reanalysis data sources that are easy to update. We apply our model across the contiguous US from 2006 to 2020, generating daily estimates of smoke PM(2.5) over a 10 km-by-10 km grid and use these data to characterize levels and trends in smoke PM(2.5). Smoke contributions to daily PM(2.5) concentrations have increased by up to 5 μg/m(3) in the Western US over the last decade, reversing decades of policy-driven improvements in overall air quality, with concentrations growing fastest for higher income populations and predominantly Hispanic populations. The number of people in locations with at least 1 day of smoke PM(2.5) above 100 μg/m(3) per year has increased 27-fold over the last decade, including nearly 25 million people in 2020 alone. Our data set can bolster efforts to comprehensively understand the drivers and societal impacts of trends and extremes in wildfire smoke.
BACKGROUND: Fort McMurray, a city in northern Alberta, Canada, has experienced multiple traumatic events in the last five years, including the 2016 wildfire, the 2020 floods, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Traumatic events often lead to increased mental health burdens in affected communities. OBJECTIVE: To assess if the number of traumatic events experienced by residents of Fort McMurray correlates with the prevalence and severity of mental health issues experienced. METHODOLOGY: A cross-sectional study using an online survey questionnaire was used to gather demographic, trauma (wildfire, flooding, and COVID-19), and clinical information from the resident of Fort McMurray between April 24 to June 2 2021. Likely Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and low resilience were measured using standardised rating scales. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 26 using Chi-Square tests and multivariate regression analysis. RESULTS: Respondents who experienced COVID-19 and either flood or wildfire traumas (N = 101) were eleven times more likely to have GAD symptoms (OR: 11.39; 95% CI: 1.43-91.04), four times more likely to have likely MDD, (OR: 3.85; 95% CI: .995-14.90), ten times more likely to have likely PTSD (OR: 10.47; 95% CI: 1.28-85.67), and low resilience (OR: 10.56; 95% CI: 1.21-92.17). Respondents who experienced COVID-19, flooding, and wildfire traumas (N = 47) were eighteen times more likely to express GAD symptoms (OR: 18.30; 95% CI: 2.20-152.45) and more than eleven times likely to have likely PTSD (OR: 11.41; 95% CI: 1.34-97.37) in comparison to the respondents who experienced COVID-19 only trauma (N = 19). CONCLUSION: Measures to reduce climate change and associated natural disasters could reduce the impact of cumulative trauma and associated mental health burden in vulnerable populations. It is essential that more mental health resources are mobilised to support communities impacted by multiple natural disasters. HIGHLIGHTS: The number of traumatic disasters experienced in residents of Fort McMurray five years after the 2016 wildfires, a year after the 2020 flooding, and during the COVID-19 pandemic correlates with the prevalence and severity of the mental health conditions reported in this study.
BACKGROUND: Fort McMurray, a city in northern Alberta, Canada, has experienced multiple traumas in the last five years, including the 2016 wildfire, the 2020 floods, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Eighteen months after the wildfire, major depressive disorder (MDD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms were elevated among school board employees in the city. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to compare employees of the school board and other employees of Fort McMurray in respect to the impact the 2016 wildfires, the 2019 COVID pandemic, and the 2020 floods had on their mental health. METHODOLOGY: A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted in Fort McMurray from 24 April to 2 June 2021. Online questionnaires were administered through REDCap and were designed to capture socio-demographic characteristics, clinical as well as wildfire, COVID-19, and flooding-related variables. Mental health outcome variables were captured using self-reported standardized assessment scales. Data were analysed with descriptive statistics, Chi-square/Fisher’s Exact tests, and binary regression analysis. RESULTS: Of the 249 residents who accessed the online survey, 186 completed the survey, giving a response rate of 74.7%. Of these respondents, 93.5% (174) indicated their employment status and were included in the Chi-square analysis. Most of the respondents were female (86.2%, (150)), above 40 years (53.4%, (93)), and were in a relationship (71.3%, (124)). The prevalence values for MDD, GAD and PTSD among respondents were 42.4%, 41.0, and 36.8%, respectively. There was a statistically significant difference between employees of the school board and other employees with respect to likely PTSD prevalence (28% vs. 45%, respectively, p < 0.05), although with other factors controlled for, in a binary logistic regression model, employer type did not significantly predict likely PTSD. CONCLUSIONS: The study has established that likely PTSD symptoms were significantly higher in other employees compared to those of school board employees. Greater exposure to the traumatic events and a greater perceived lack of support from other employers might have contributed to the significantly higher prevalence of PTSD in other employees.
In the past ten years wildfires have burned an average of 6.8 million acres per year and this is expected to increase with climate change. Wildfire burn patient outcomes have not been previously well characterized. Wildfire burn patients from the Tubbs or Camp wildfires and non-wildfire burn matched controls were identified from the burn center database and outcomes were compared. The primary outcome was mortality. Secondary outcomes included length of stay (LOS), intensive care unit (ICU) LOS, readmission and development of wound infections. Time of presentation and operating room use after wildfires was evaluated. Sixteen wildfire burn patients were identified and matched with 32 controls. Wildfire burn patients trended towards higher mortality (19% wildfire vs. 9% non-wildfire, p=0.386), longer LOS (18 days wildfire vs. 15 days non-wildfire, p=0.406), longer ICU LOS (17 days wildfire vs. 11 days non-wildfire, p=0.991), increased readmission (19% wildfire vs. 3% non-wildfire, p=0.080) and higher rates of wound infection (31% wildfire vs. 19% non-wildfire, p=0.468). The majority of wildfire patients (88%) presented within 24 hours of the wildfire reaching a residential area. Operating room time within the first week was 13 hours 44 minutes for the Tubbs Fire and 19 hours 1 minute for the Camp Fire. Patients who sustain burns in wildfires are potentially at increased risk of mortality, prolonged LOS, wound infection and readmission.
Objectives: The aim of this study is to assess prevalence of major depressive disorder (MDD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in students of Keyano College 18 months after a wildfire and to determine the predictors of likely MDD, GAD, and PTSD in the respondents. Methods: A quantitative cross-sectional survey was used to collect data through self-administered, paper-based questionnaires to determine likely MDD, GAD, and PTSD using the PHQ 9, GAD-7, and the PTSD Checklist for DSM 5, Part 3, respectively. Data were analyzed with SPSS version 20 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY) using univariate analysis with chi-square tests. Results: Eighteen months after the wildfire, the 1-month prevalence rates for MDD, GAD, and PTSD among the college students were 23.4%, 18.7%, and 11.0%, respectively. There were statistically significant associations between multiple sociodemographic variables and the likelihood respondents presented with MDD, GAD, and PTSD 18 months after the wildfire. There were also associations between the likely MDD, GAD, and PTSD and abuse/dependence on alcohol and substances in respondents at 18 months. Conclusion: Our study has established prevalence rates for MDD, GAD, and PTDS among college students 18 months after the Fort McMurray wildfires. Further studies are needed to explore the impact of college-based mental health interventions on the long-term mental health effects of the wildfires.
Background: The 2016 wildfires in Fort McMurray (Alberta, Canada) led to a massive displacement of 88,000 people and destroyed 2,400 homes. Although no direct human fatality resulted, many individuals feared for their lives or those of their loved ones. Objectives: (1) To estimate the prevalence of post-traumatic stress, major depressive, insomnia, generalized anxiety, and substance use disorders in the adult population of Fort McMurray 1 year after the evacuation; (2) To identify pre-, peri-, and post-disaster correlates of mental health disorders. Methods: A phone survey using random digit sampling was used to survey evacuees. A total of 1,510 evacuees (response rate = 40.2%, 55.5% women, mean age = 44.11, SD = 12.69) were interviewed between May 9th and July 28th, 2017. Five validated scales were administered: the PTSD Symptoms Checklist (PCL-5), the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), the depression and anxiety subscales of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9, GAD-7), and the CAGE Substance Abuse Screening Tool. Results: One year after the wildfires, 38% had a probable diagnosis of either post-traumatic stress, major depressive, insomnia, generalized anxiety, or substance use disorder, or a combination of these. Insomnia disorder was the most common, with an estimated prevalence of 28.5%. Post-traumatic stress, major depressive and generalized anxiety disorders were almost equally prevalent, with similar to 15% each. The estimated prevalence of substance use disorder was 7.9%. For all five mental health disorders, having a mental health condition prior to the fires was a significant risk factor, as well as having experienced financial stress or strain due to the economic decline already present in Fort McMurray. Five post-disaster consequences were significant predictors of four of the five disorders: decrease in work, decrease in social life, poorer current health status, increase in drug and alcohol use, and higher level of stress experienced since the fires. Conclusion: One year after the fires, more than one third of the evacuees had clinically significant psychological symptoms, including those of insomnia, post-traumatic stress, depression, anxiety, and substance use. This study helped identify individuals more at risk for mental health issues after a natural disaster and could guide post-disaster psychosocial support strategies.
In May 2016, a wildfire devastated a northern region of Alberta, Canada, resulting in negative consequences on physical and mental stress, social relationships, and overall resilience among Indigenous residents. Research on coping and managing stress following a disaster has failed to incorporate unique characteristics from Indigenous perspectives. Sharing circles were held in urban and rural community settings to capture: (a) Indigenous perspectives of coping, (b) individual and collective strengths that helped Indigenous residents and communities to cope during and after the wildfire, and (c) intergenerational experiences of coping from stress among Indigenous residents. Indigenous residents’ experience with coping from the wildfire was shaped by: (a) heightened physical and emotional stress, (b) existing structural inequities, and (c) strong community cohesion and connection to culture. An unexpected outcome of this research was the therapeutic value of the sharing circles for participants to share their experience.
Impact Statement In October of 2017, Sonoma County, California, experienced devastating and historic wildfires and subsequent community trauma. This manuscript details the development, dissemination, and evaluation of a public mobile mental health app for wildfire survivors. Lessons learned are offered to contribute to the science and practice of using digital tools to conduct disaster mental health outreach and research. In October 2017, Northern California experienced devastating and historic wildfires leaving the community in need of support to foster emotional resilience during the recovery process. Adolescents represent a particularly vulnerable population in the wake of disaster, and digital mental health interventions may hold promise for reaching teens at scale. The present study examined the feasibility and efficacy of a mobile mental health app for disaster, Sonoma Rises. A multiple-baseline single-case experimental design (SCED) utilizing a research-enabled version of the app was employed with seven adolescents who experienced significant damage to their homes and schools in the wildfires. Participants completed daily mood ratings, weekly measures of posttraumatic stress symptoms, internalizing and externalizing symptoms, psychosocial functioning, and then pre-post-measures of anxiety, depression, wellbeing, sleep, academic engagement, and perceived social support as well as quantitative and qualitative measures of intervention satisfaction and feasibility. Sonoma Rises was found to be feasible in terms of engagement, satisfaction, and likelihood of recommending to a friend. During the study, another wildfire occurred and all participants underwent a prolonged mandated evacuation and were subject to a series of extended power outages. Uptake of the publicly available version of the Sonoma Rises app among the general population was modest but engagement among users was sustained. Lessons learned are offered to contribute to the science and practice of building, disseminating, and implementing digital tools to conduct more equitable disaster mental health outreach and research.
Purpose This paper describes the educational experiences of children and youth (aged 3-20) with disabilities during school closures resulting from the 2017 Northern California wildfires. Students with disabilities are particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of disaster, yet the effects of school closures on these children remains understudied. This study identifies considerations for students with disabilities and their families post-disaster. Design/methodology/approach An inductive, qualitative approach was used for the study design, methodology and analysis. In-depth interviews were conducted with parents of 14 students with disabilities about their experiences during and following school closures. All of these children had missed between a week and over a month of school as a result of the wildfires. Thematic analysis was used to code data and identify four themes present across the data. Findings Our findings indicate that children and youth with disabilities experienced disruptions in school-based services; lost previously acquired skills; exhibited negative health and behavioral issues; had difficulties adapting to new, unfamiliar routines and were saddened by lost social connections. Additionally, findings pinpoint the importance of social connections while schools were closed, the benefits of resuming school which included access to responsive school staff, as well as challenges faced by children with disabilities and their families once schools reopened. Originality/value Families of children with disabilities, as illustrated in this study, often must transverse a different post-disaster landscape. Schools should assist them in navigating that landscape so students with disabilities can experience a more equitable return to education post-disaster.
In October of 2017 and 2019, Sonoma County California endured historic wildfires and subsequent community trauma. The Sonoma Wildfire Mental Health Collaborative was created to (a) democratize access to evidence-based mental health resources and services for personal recovery and long-term community resilience building, and to (b) measure the reach and efficacy of the strategies employed in order to create a knowledge base to inform disaster response in other communities. Offerings included a mind-body yoga program and training in Skills for Psychological Recovery (SPR) for counselors who wished to provide services to individuals impacted by the wildfires. An evaluation of the mental health strategies employed revealed that (a) the mind-body program was well-received, with a high degree of satisfaction and self-reported benefit among individuals who attended trauma-informed yoga classes and (b) counselors found SPR to be a practical, flexible short-term intervention for individuals in the aftermath of the wildfires and expressed moderate to high levels of intent to use it in practice. Importantly, the evaluation of the 2017 wildfire mental health response was compromised by the Kincade Fire in 2019, in which prolonged mandatory evacuations and power outages impacted response rates. The origin story is shared for how a community collaborative was built. Lessons learned are discussed and recommendations summarized so as to contribute to the science and practice of disaster mental health outreach. Impact Statement In October of 2017 and 2019, Sonoma County, California experienced devastating and historic wildfires and subsequent community trauma. This manuscript describes the origin story of the Wildfire Mental Health Collaborative and preliminary findings from two mental health interventions employed with wildfire survivors (trauma-informed yoga, Skills for Psychological Recovery). Lessons learned and recommendations are offered to guide future work in the science and practice of disaster mental health.
Background Wildfires in California have become more deadly and destructive in recent years, and four of the ten most destructive fires occurred in 2017 and 2018. Through interviews with service providers, this article explores how these recent wildfires have impacted surrounding communities and the role various recovery resources have played in responding to the short- and long-term health and social needs of survivors. Methods Using a purposive sampling methodology, we interviewed 21 health and social service personnel who assisted in wildfire recovery efforts in California in 2017 and 2018. The study participants worked or volunteered in medical facilities, social services agencies and philanthropy/nonprofit organizations located in communities affected by wildfires. Participants were asked about three common, overarching themes that fire-impacted communities navigate post-disaster: health issues, social issues, and response and recovery resources. Inductive coding was used to identify common subthemes. Results The two most frequently discussed social issues during interviews were housing and employment access. Mental and emotional well-being and access to health resources were identified as being the most challenging health concerns that survivors face post-disaster. Participants also identified the following private and public recovery resources that survivors use to attempt to restabilize following the fire: community support, county agencies, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA,) insurance companies and philanthropic organizations. However, participants noted that the cumulative impacts of these efforts still leave many of their patients and clients without the resources needed to restabilize emotionally, financially and physically. Finally, participants spoke about the community-wide, downstream impacts of wildfires, noting that “survivors” are not only those whose health is immediately compromised by the disaster. Conclusion Given the worsening wildfire seasons in California, we must increase our understanding of both the scope of the health and social issues that survivors navigate following a disaster, as well as the effectiveness and sustainability of recovery resources available to survivors. We must also understand the “ripple effect” that wildfires have on surrounding communalities, impacting housing access, social services, and health care access. More research and support, especially during the current COVID-19 pandemic, is urgently needed to improve our ability to support the health and social needs of wildfire survivors in the future.
Objectives: This case study examined multi-level social-ecological supports in promoting well-being through college students impacted by one of the deadliest wildfires in U.S. history.Participants: College students attending a large public university were surveyed (N = 354, M(age =) 22.7, 76.2% female, 61% white).Methods: Measures included demographics, individual factors (mindfulness, sleep problems), social support (emotional support, family support, and friendship), and sense of community. Multiple linear regression models on well-being were constructed.Results: Findings indicated that mindfulness, sleep disturbances, emotional support, family support, number of close friends, and sense of community were significant predictors of well-being.Conclusion: Findings highlight the importance of universities in proactively bolstering critical social-ecological needs of college students living in communities vulnerable to climate-change accelerated environmental disasters.
Little research has examined the mental health risks of concurrent disasters. For example, disasters like wildfires have been shown to have a strong association with psychological symptoms-the 2020 U.S. Western wildfire season was the worst on record and occurred while the country was still navigating the COVID-19 pandemic. We implemented two quasi-experimental analyses, an interrupted time series analysis, and a difference-in-difference analysis to evaluate the impacts of wildfires and COVID-19 on mental health crisis help-seeking patterns. Both methods showed no statistical association between exposure to wildfires and the seeking of mental health support during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results highlighted that 2020 wildfires were not associated with an acute increase in crisis texts for youth in the two months after the events, likely due to an already elevated text volume in response to the COVID-19 pandemic from March 2020 throughout the fall wildfire season (Aug to Oct 2020). Future research is needed outside of the context of the pandemic to understand the effects of extreme and concurrent climatic events on adolescent mental health, and targeted interventions are required to ensure youth and adolescents are receiving adequate support during these types of crisis events.
The psychological effects of disasters on children with disabilities are understudied, despite evidence towards increased risk for complications after other types of trauma exposure. This study investigated the experience of children and youth with disabilities exposed to the 2017 Northern California wildfires, with a particular focus on psychological reactions. In-depth interviews were conducted with parents of 14 children and youth with disabilities one year post-disaster. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the interviews. Parents described the wildfires as traumatic events for both themselves and their children. Children and youth exhibited stress, grief, and other emotional and behavioral reactions during evacuation, in the immediate aftermath, and one year post-disaster. Navigating disability-related needs, such as accessible housing, contributed to parent stress post-disaster. School and community-based mental health efforts are described, along with a call for increased attention to disaster-related reactions in children with developmental disabilities. Suggestions for improving preparedness and response efforts that better support children with disabilities and their families post-disaster are given.
Young adulthood is a critical developmental life stage and a period of enhanced vulnerability to stress. In 2020, young adults in Northern California were faced with a series of unforeseen, collective stressors: the COVID-19 pandemic, extreme wildfires, social tension associated with the murder of George Floyd, and a contentious election that culminated in an attack on the nation’s capital. In a natural experiment, we compared the psychosocial development of 415 young adults across 8 monthly assessment waves during 2020 to a control cohort (n = 465) who completed the same assessment protocol in 2019, prior to the onset of stressors. Results of latent growth curve models indicated that the 2020 cohort had less adaptive trajectories of affective well-being and lower levels and less adaptive trajectories of social functioning, suggesting detrimental effects of cumulative, collective stressors on the socio-emotional development of young adults.
BACKGROUND: Based on the most common psychological difficulties of the evacuees from the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfires in Alberta, Canada, a therapist-guided cognitive behavioral self-treatment was developed. This study aimed to explore how gender influences the usage and subjective appreciation of the RESILIENT online treatment. METHODS: Our study included 81 English-speaking evacuees with significant posttraumatic symptoms, or with some posttraumatic symptoms accompanied by at least mild depression symptoms or subclinical insomnia, and who logged into the platform at least once. Various usage and subjective appreciation variables were analyzed, including number of completed sessions, number of logins, number of words per session, perceived efforts, perception of usefulness and intention to continue using the different strategies. RESULTS: No difference was detected in most objective usage indicators. The number of words written in sessions 7 and 10 was significantly greater for women than for men. Regarding subjective appreciation, men had a greater perception of having put strong efforts in the cognitive restructuring strategy, while women reported in a greater proportion that they wanted to continue using physical exercise as a behavioral activation strategy. CONCLUSIONS: Our study offers a first look into how women and men use online treatments, and what their preferences are.
BACKGROUND: Wildfires emit many carcinogenic pollutants that contaminate air, water, terrestrial, and indoor environments. However, little is known about the relationship between exposure to wildfires and cancer risk. We aimed to assess the associations between residential exposure to wildfires and the incidence of several cancer outcomes (lung cancer, brain cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and leukaemia) in Canada. METHODS: We did a population-based observational cohort study of participants in the 1996 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort. The 1996 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort is a nationally representative sample of Canadian adults, followed up for cancer incidence and mortality from 1996 to 2015. For this analysis, we excluded participants who lived in major Canadian cities (with a population size greater than 1·5 million people), recent immigrants, and individuals younger than 25 years or 90 years of age or older at baseline. Exposures to wildfires were assigned on the basis of area burned within a 20 km or 50 km radius of residential locations and updated for annual residential mobility. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate associations between exposure to wildfires and specific cancers associated with carcinogenic compounds released by wildfires, including lung and brain cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and leukaemia, adjusted for many personal and neighbourhood-level covariates. FINDINGS: Our analyses included more than 2 million people followed up for a median of 20 years, for a total of 34 million person-years. Wildfire exposure was associated with slightly increased incidence of lung cancer and brain tumours. For example, cohort members exposed to a wildfire within 50 km of residential locations in the past 10 years had a 4·9% relatively higher incidence (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 1·049, 95% CI 1·028-1·071) of lung cancer than unexposed populations, and a 10% relatively higher incidence (adjusted HR 1·100, 1·026-1·179) of brain tumours. Similar associations were observed for the 20 km buffer size. Wildfires were not associated with haematological cancers in this study, and concentration-response trends were not readily apparent when area burned was modelled as a continuous variable. INTERPRETATION: Long-term exposure to wildfires might increase the risk of lung cancer and brain tumours. Further work is needed to develop long-term estimates of wildfire exposures that capture the complex mixture of environmental pollutants released during these events. FUNDING: Canadian Institute for Health Research and Fonds de recherche du Quebec.
Wildfires are an essential part of a healthy ecosystem, yet the expansion of the wildland-urban interface, combined with climatic changes and other anthropogenic activities, have led to the rise of wildfire hazards in the past few decades. Managing future wildfires and their multi-dimensional impacts requires moving from traditional reactive response to deploying proactive policies, strategies, and interventional programs to reduce wildfire risk to wildland-urban interface communities. Existing risk assessment frameworks lack a unified analytical method that properly captures uncertainties and the impact of decisions across social, ecological, and technical systems, hindering effective decision-making related to risk reduction investments. In this paper, a conceptual probabilistic wildfire risk assessment framework that propagates modeling uncertainties is presented. The framework characterizes the dynamic risk through spatial probability density functions of loss, where loss can include different decision variables, such as physical, social, economic, environmental, and health impacts, depending on the stakeholder needs and jurisdiction. The proposed approach consists of a computational framework to propagate and integrate uncertainties in the fire scenarios, propagation of fire in the wildland and urban areas, damage, and loss analyses. Elements of this framework that require further research are identified, and the complexity in characterizing wildfire losses and the need for an analytical-deliberative process to include the perspectives of the spectrum of stakeholders are discussed.
There is limited population-scale evidence on the burden of exposure to wildfire smoke during pregnancy and its impacts on birth outcomes. In order to investigate this relationship, data on every singleton birth in California 2006-2012 were combined with satellite-based estimates of wildfire smoke plume boundaries and high-resolution gridded estimates of surface PM2.5 concentrations and a regression model was used to estimate associations with preterm birth risk. Results suggest that each additional day of exposure to any wildfire smoke during pregnancy was associated with an 0.49 % (95 % CI: 0.41-0.59 %) increase in risk of preterm birth ( 37 weeks). At sample median smoke exposure (7 days) this translated to a 3.4 % increase in risk, relative to an unexposed mother. Estimates by trimester suggest stronger associations with exposure later in pregnancy and estimates by smoke intensity indicate that observed associations were driven by higher intensity smoke-days. Exposure to low intensity smoke-days had no association with preterm birth while an additional medium (smoke PM2.5 5-10 mu g/m(3)) or high (smoke PM2.5 10 mu g/m(3)) intensity smoke-day was associated with an 0.95 % (95 % CI: 0.47-1.42 %) and 0.82 % (95 % CI: 0.41-1.24 %) increase in preterm risk, respectively. In contrast to previous findings for other pollution types, neither exposure to smoke nor the relative impact of smoke on preterm birth differed by race/ethnicity or income in our sample. However, impacts differed greatly by baseline smoke exposure, with mothers in regions with infrequent smoke exposure experiencing substantially larger impacts from an additional smoke-day than mothers in regions where smoke is more common. We estimate 6,974 (95 % CI: 5,513-8,437) excess preterm births attributable to wildfire smoke exposure 2007-2012, accounting for 3.7 % of observed preterm births during this period. Our findings have important implications for understanding the costs of growing wildfire smoke exposure, and for understanding the benefits of smoke mitigation measures.
In recent years, wildfires have ravaged the landscape in many Western American states, especially California. But will these horrific wildfire experiences increase public support for wildfire adaptation measures? We conducted an individual-level survey in California in 2019. Combining survey data with geocoded information about a respondent’s proximity to wildfire events and exposure to wildfire smoke, we assess whether respondents’ experiences increased support for several wildfire adaptation policies. We also control for party affiliation. We find that Californians generally oppose restrictive resilience policies and view the decision to take adaptive steps as a matter of personal choice. Republicans are generally more opposed than Democrats to spending public funds to incentivize resilience measures, but proximity to wildfires lessens their opposition to using public funds to encourage homeowners to upgrade their properties for increased protection from wildfires and encourage relocation to safer places. Although exposure to wildfire smoke is extensive and harmful to health, we found that its main impact on policy preferences was statistically insignificant.
OBJECTIVE: Determine serum lipid and general health/fitness alterations following a 5-month wildfire suppression season. METHODS: We recruited 100 wildland firefighters (WLFFs) to a 5-month pre- to post-season observational study. Nude body mass, blood pressure (BP), grip strength, and steptest heart rate (HR) were recorded. Blood samples were collected for lipid panel analysis (total cholesterol, high density lipoproteins (HDL)-cholesterol, low density lipoproteins-cholesterol, very low density lipoproteinscholesterol, triglycerides, triglyceride:HDL-cholesterol ratio). Two-tailed dependent t tests determined statistical significance (P < 0.05). RESULTS: There were pre- to post-season changes in nude body mass (+2 ± 4%, P = 0.001), systolic BP (-2 ± 10%, P = 0.01), step-test HR (-5 ± 10%, P < 0.001), and all serum lipids (total cholesterol: +5 ± 14%, P = 0.02, HDL-cholesterol: = 1 ± 17%, P = 0.04, low density lipoproteins-cholesterol: +8 ± 22%, P = 0.02, very low density lipoproteins-cholesterol: +31 ± 49%, P < 0.001, triglycerides: +30 ± 49%, P < 0.001, triglyceride:HDL-cholesterol ratio: +37 ± 58%, P < 0.001). Pre- to post-season diastolic BP (P = 0.12) and grip strength (P = 0.60) remained stable. CONCLUSIONS: WLFFs demonstrate maladaptive serum lipids and body mass alterations despite subtle aerobic fitness improvements.
Historically, firefighting has been a hazardous profession and in response, many departments and national organizations have adopted rehabilitation protocols to minimize excess risk. Fire rehab is a coordinated plan to ensure firefighters, who encounter extremes of temperature, exposure, and exertion, do not develop significant illnesses related to exertion or exposure. Fire rehab can vary from simple temperature management and oral rehydration to aggressive medical treatments and transport to a higher level of care. Fire rehab is continually evolving as our understanding of physiologic responses to exertion and exposure change, technologies evolve, and risk tolerance adjusts. Fire rehab services have a varying structure, depending on the service and the region. Small, rural fire services may have few responders with medical training and coordinate with local EMS agencies to assist or oversee rehab. Some fire services have a sufficient number of trained EMS providers and coordinate their own rehab, including transport to health care facilities. Large services may have highly scalable rehab plans that include multiple rehabilitation units operating under a coordinating officer. Over the years, a group of central resources has been created that provides education and guidance on fire rehab. In 1987, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) released its Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, which comprehensively addressed common dangers and protective measures for firefighters. In 1992, the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA) published the short report FA-114, Emergency Incident Rehabilitation, which included a sample standard operating procedure (SOP) for fire rehab. A textbook bearing the same title was released in 1997, providing further details of the science and reasoning for the fire rehab protocols. USFA published an updated SOP, and much more comprehensive, report on Emergency Incident Rehabilitation in 2008. NFPA 1584, Recommended Practice on the Rehabilitation of Members Operating at Incident Scene Operations and Training Exercises was issued in 2003, establishing guidelines for fire services. These recommendations were upgraded to standards in a 2008 update and again updated in 2015, with carbon monoxide monitoring added to recommended practices. It is important to delineate that fire rehabilitation, when discussed in the context of wildfires, relates to the ecological recovery of an affected area, not the physiological recovery of humans working to contain fires. The subject of the ecological recovery after a wildfire is addressed in other literature and will not be covered in this article.
Over the past four decades, the average area annually burned in wildfires in the United States has roughly quadrupled. Larger, more powerful wildfires increasingly threaten inhabited areas as well as vital infrastructure, including many installations of the United States Armed Forces. This article first introduces readers to what wildfire is and the unique challenges it creates to the environment, health and, specifically, to the Department of Defense (DOD). Next, it discusses the dominant approaches to addressing the wildfire threat, prescribed fire, and mechanical treatment. It then summarizes the primary laws, policies and partners involved in wildfire policy in the United States as applied to the DOD. Finally, it proposes a statutory solution, the Building Up Resilience Now for Defense (BURND) Act, that would improve the wildfire resilience of the DOD and communities hosting DOD installations in important ways, thus enhancing our national defense.
Wildfires are now a common feature of the western US, increasing in both intensity and number of acres burned over the last three decades. The effects of this changing wildfire and smoke landscape are a critical public and occupational health issue. While respiratory morbidity due to smoke exposure is a priority, evaluating the molecular underpinnings that explain recent extrapulmonary observations is necessary. Here, we use an Apoe(-/-) mouse model to investigate the epigenetic impact of paternal exposure to simulated wildfire smoke. We demonstrate that 40 days of exposure to smoke from Douglas fir needles induces sperm DNA methylation changes in adult mice. DNA methylation was measured by reduced representation bisulfite sequencing and varied significantly in 3353 differentially methylated regions, which were subsequently annotated to 2117 genes. The differentially methylated regions were broadly distributed across the mouse genome, but the vast majority (nearly 80%) were hypermethylated. Pathway analyses, using gene-derived and differentially methylated region-derived gene ontology terms, point to a number of developmental processes that may warrant future investigation. Overall, this study of simulated wildfire smoke exposure suggests paternal reproductive risks are possible with prolonged exposure.
The smart helmet is designed for a wildland firefighter to send vital data to their supervisor while they are working to extinguish an active fire. The smart helmet collects temperature, heart rate, and acceleration data from each firefighter via sensors inside and around the helmet. The data is used to alert the supervisor of potential health or emergency issues, such as heat-related illness, dehydration, potential falls or abnormal heart rates. A mobile app that the supervisor connects to their smart helmet device collects data in real time from the firefighters, without the need of any cellular coverage or WiFi.
INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to evaluate heat stress occurring in wildfire management activities with variable environmental conditions. METHODS: Direct observation and real-time wireless physiological monitoring allowed for weather and physiological metrics, including heart rate, core temperature (T(c)), skin temperature, and physiological strain index (PSI), of male (n=193) and female (n=28) wildland firefighters (WLFFs) to be recorded during wildfire management activities. Accelerometry data were used to categorize intensity level of activity. RESULTS: Ambient temperature and relative humidity values were used to compute the heat index (HI; n=3891 h) and divided into quartiles (Q1: 13.3-25.1°C; Q2: 25.2-26.4°C; Q3: 26.5-28.9°C; Q4: 29.0-49.1°C). Activity levels remained relatively constant across all HI quartiles. The percentage of time spent performing moderate/vigorous activities was lowest during the hotter Q4 (Q1: 3%; Q2: 2%; Q3: 2%; Q4: 1%). Heart rate, T(c), PSI, and skin temperature associations with HI varied by resource type. Sixty-one percent of WLFFs (n=134) experienced a T(c) ≥38.0°C, and 50% of WLFFs (n=111) experienced a PSI ≥6.0. CONCLUSIONS: Heat stress was prevalent as WLFFs performed job tasks of varying intensities in all ambient conditions. Spontaneous bouts of arduous labor, duration of work shifts, and other occupation characteristics present the possibility for substantial durations of hyperthermia, although no heat-related injuries occurred in this study. Despite chronic exposure to rugged sloped terrain, load carriage, and environmental conditions, self-regulation and individual attention to managing work:rest appears to be the primary management strategy in mitigating excessive accumulation of body heat in this occupation.
Uncompensable heat from wildland firefighter personal protective equipment decreases the physiological tolerance while exercising in the heat. Our previous work demonstrated that the standard wildland firefighter helmet significantly increases both perceived and actual head heat. This study compared heat accumulation under simulated working conditions while wearing a standard non-vented helmet versus a vented helmet. Ten male subjects randomly completed two trials separated by a 2-week washout. Subjects walked 180 min (5.6 km h−1, 5% grade) in a heat chamber (35°C, 30% relative humidity) broken into three segments of 50 min of exercise and 10 min rest, followed by a work capacity test to exhaustion. Each trial measured the physiological strain index, perceived head heat, helmet temperature and relative humidity, rating of perceived exertion and heart rate. At the end of the 3-h trial heart rate, physiological strain, perceived exertion, helmet temperature and humidity showed the main effects of time (P < 0.05) but were not different between trials. Work capacity was significantly greater in the vented trial (P = 0.001). End-trial strain and heart rate were significantly related to work performed (r = –0.8, P < 0.001). Elevated work, trends for changes in perceived exertion, helmet microenvironment and perceived head heat suggest greater heat dissipation and comfort with the vented helmet.
Following the 2016 Horse River Wildfire in northern Alberta, the provincial health authority, the ministry of health, non-profit and charitable organizations, and regional community-based service agencies mobilized to address the growing health and mental health concerns among Indigenous residents and communities through the provision of services and supports. Among the communities and residents that experienced significant devastation and loss were First Nation and Metis residents in the region. Provincial and local funding was allocated to new recovery positions and to support pre-existing health and social programs. The objective of this research was to qualitatively describe the health systems response to the health impacts following the wildfire from the perspective of service providers who were directly responsible for delivering or organizing health and mental wellness services and supports to Indigenous residents. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 15 Indigenous and 10 non-Indigenous service providers from the Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo (RMWB). Interviews were transcribed verbatim and a constant comparative analysis method was used to identify themes. Following service provider interviews, a supplemental document review was completed to provide background and context for the qualitative findings from interviews. The document review allowed for a better understanding of the health systems response at a systems level following the wildfire. Triangulation of semi-structured interviews and organization report documents confirmed our findings. The conceptual framework by Mirzoev and Kane for understanding health systems responsiveness guided our data interpretation. Our findings were divided into three themes (1) service provision in response to Indigenous mental health concerns (2) gaps in Indigenous health-related services post-wildfire and (3) adopting a health equity lens in post-disaster recovery. The knowledge gained from this research can help inform future emergency management and assist policy and decision makers with culturally safe and responsive recovery planning. Future recovery and response efforts should consider identifying and addressing underlying health, mental health, and emotional concerns in order to be more effective in assisting with healing for Indigenous communities following a public health emergency such as a wildfire disaster.
The 2016 Alberta wildfire, the largest insured natural disaster in Canada, led to a mass evacuation of residents of Fort McMurray, a small city in northern Alberta. The wildfire resulted in significant damages to housing and community infrastructure. The entire community was displaced for several weeks. Post-disaster, community members experienced individual and collective trauma, and other negative mental health impacts in response to the significant losses and grief they endured. Spirituality has been found to be a major protective factor in facilitating resiliency and recovery following the experience of disaster. Nonetheless, little focus has been directed toward how spirituality can strengthen and empower community capacity and growth during post-disaster recovery. Our study explored various meanings and concerns, along with tools and strategies that helped to nurture spiritual resilience and well-being among residents of Fort McMurray following the Alberta wildfire. Data were collected through interviews and focus group discussions with community influencers working to support long-term recovery efforts in the city. Participants identified a number of spiritual resources such as a strong sense of belonging, a shared positive outlook, faith and hope, compassion, and sense of gratitude, which contributed to increased resilience and positive health and well-being and helped them to support families and communities in the post disaster recovery period. Our findings indicate that spiritual values and beliefs can play a significant role in building resilience and promoting individual and communal healing and recovery post-disaster. These findings have important implications for post-disaster recovery strategies, as they highlight the need to ensure supports for interventions and initiatives that strengthen a collective sense of identity and social cohesion, informed by communal norms and beliefs, including programs and resources which support opportunities for reflexivity to foster shared healing and ongoing recovery processes.
BACKGROUND: The Fort McMurray wildfire of 3 May 2016 was one of the most devastating natural disasters in Canadian history. Although resilience plays a crucial role in the daily functioning of individuals by acting as a protective shield that lessens the impact of disasters on their mental well-being, to date little is known about the long-term impact of wildfires on resilience and associated predictors of low resilience. OBJECTIVES: The objective of the study was to assess the prevalence and predictors of resilience among residents of Fort McMurray five years after the wildfires. METHOD: This was a quantitative cross-sectional study. A self-administered online survey which included standardized rating scales for resilience (BRS), anxiety (GAD-7), depression (PHQ-9), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)(PCL-C) was used to determine the prevalence of resilience as well as its demographic, clinical, and wildfire-related predictors. The data were collected between 24 April and 2 June 2021 and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 using univariate analysis with a chi-squared test and binary logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 186 residents completed the survey out of 249 who accessed the online survey, producing a response rate of 74.7%. Most of the respondents were females (85.5%, 159), above 40 years of age (81.6%, 80), employed (94.1%, 175), and in a relationship (71%, 132). Two variables-having had PTSD symptoms (OR = 2.85; 95% CI: 1.06-7.63), and age-were significant predictors of low resilience in our study. The prevalence of low resilience in our sample was 37.4%. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that age and the presence of PTSD symptoms were the independent significant risk factors associated with low resilience five years after the Fort McMurray wildfire disaster. Further research is needed to enhance understanding of the pathways to resilience post-disaster to identify the robust predictors and provide appropriate interventions to the most vulnerable individuals and communities.
The impacts of wildfires on the health of children are becoming a more urgent matter as wildfires become more frequent, intense and affecting, not only forested areas, but also urban locations. It is important that medical professionals be prepared to provide information to patients and families on how to minimize the adverse health effects on children of wildfire smoke and ash from wildfires. (C) 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Elevated ambient temperatures and extreme weather events have increased the incidence of wildfires world-wide resulting in increased wood smoke particle (WSP). Epidemiologic data suggests that WSP exposure associates with exacerbations of respiratory diseases, and with increased respiratory viral infections. To assess the impact of WSP exposure on host response to viral pneumonia, we performed WSP exposures in rodents followed by infection with mouse adapted influenza (HINI-PR8). C57BL/6 male mice aged 6-8 weeks were challenged with WSP or PBS by oropharyngeal aspiration in acute (single dose) or sub-acute exposures (day 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10). Additional groups underwent sub-acute exposure followed by infection by influenza or heat-inactivated (HI) virus. Following exposures/infection, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed to assess for total cell counts/differentials, total protein, protein carbonyls and hyaluronan. Lung tissue was assessed for viral counts by real time PCR. When compared to PBS, acute WSP exposure associated with an increase in airspace macrophages. Alternatively, sub-acute exposure resulted in a dose dependent increase in airspace neutrophils. Sub-acute WSP exposure followed by influenza infection was associated with improved respiratory viral outcomes including reduced weight loss and increased blood oxygen saturation, and decreased protein carbonyls and viral titers. Flow cytometry demonstrated dynamic changes in pulmonary macrophage and T cell subsets based on challenge with WSP and influenza. This data suggests that sub-acute WSP exposure can improve host response to acute influenza infection.
Understanding whether and how wildfires exacerbate COVID-19 outcomes is important for assessing the efficacy and design of public sector responses in an age of more frequent and simultaneous natural disasters and extreme events. Drawing on environmental and emergency management literatures, we investigate how wildfire smoke (PM(2.5)) impacted COVID-19 infections and deaths during California’s 2020 wildfire season and how public housing resources and hospital capacity moderated wildfires’ effects on COVID-19 outcomes. We also hypothesize and empirically assess the differential impact of wildfire smoke on COVID-19 infections and deaths in counties exhibiting high and low social vulnerability. To test our hypotheses concerning wildfire severity and its disproportionate impact on COVID-19 outcomes in socially vulnerable communities, we construct a county-by-day panel dataset for the period April 1 to November 30, 2020, in California, drawing on publicly available state and federal data sources. This study’s empirical results, based on panel fixed effects models, show that wildfire smoke is significantly associated with increases in COVID-19 infections and deaths. Moreover, wildfires exacerbated COVID-19 outcomes by depleting the already scarce hospital and public housing resources in local communities. Conversely, when wildfire smoke doubled, a one percent increase in the availability of hospital and public housing resources was associated with a 2 to 7 percent decline in COVID-19 infections and deaths. For California communities exhibiting high social vulnerability, the occurrence of wildfires worsened COVID-19 outcomes. Sensitivity analyses based on an alternative sample size and different measures of social vulnerability validate this study’s main findings. An implication of this study for policymakers is that communities exhibiting high social vulnerability will greatly benefit from local government policies that promote social equity in housing and healthcare before, during, and after disasters.
The 2020 California wildfire season coincided with the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic affecting many counties in California, with impacts on air quality. We quantitatively analyzed the short-term effect of air pollution on COVID-19 transmission using county-level data collected during the 2020 wildfire season. Using time-series methodology, we assessed the relationship between short-term exposure to particulate matter (PM(2.5)), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), and Air Quality Index (AQI) on confirmed cases of COVID-19 across 20 counties impacted by wildfires. Our findings indicate that PM(2.5), CO, and AQI are positively associated with confirmed COVID-19 cases. This suggests that increased air pollution could worsen the situation of a health crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Health policymakers should make tailored policies to cope with situations that may increase the level of air pollution, especially during a wildfire season.
Background: Air pollution has been linked to increased susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2. Thus, it has been suggested that wildfire smoke events may exacerbate the COVID-19 pandemic. Objectives: Our goal was to examine whether wildfire smoke from the 2020 wildfires in the western United States was associated with an increased rate of SARS-CoV-2 infections in Reno, Nevada. Methods: We conducted a time-series analysis using generalized additive models to examine the relationship between the SARS-CoV-2 test positivity rate at a large regional hospital in Reno and ambient PM2.5 from 15 May to 20 Oct 2020. Results: We found that a 10 µg/m3 increase in the 7-day average PM2.5 concentration was associated with a 6.3% relative increase in the SARS-CoV-2 test positivity rate, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 2.5 to 10.3%. This corresponded to an estimated 17.7% (CI: 14.4-20.1%) increase in the number of cases during the time period most affected by wildfire smoke, from 16 Aug to 10 Oct. Significance: Wildfire smoke may have greatly increased the number of COVID-19 cases in Reno. Thus, our results substantiate the role of air pollution in exacerbating the pandemic and can help guide the development of public preparedness policies in areas affected by wildfire smoke, as wildfires are likely to coincide with the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021.
From hampering the ability of water utilities to fill their reservoirs to leaving forests parched and ready to burn, drought is a unique natural hazard that impacts many human and natural systems. A great deal of research and synthesis to date has been devoted to understanding how drought conditions harm agricultural operations, leaving other drought-vulnerable sectors relatively under-served. This review aims to fill in such gaps by synthesizing literature from a diverse array of scientific fields to detail how drought impacts nonagricultural sectors of the economy: public water supply, recreation and tourism, forest resources, and public health. We focus on the Intermountain West region of the United States, where the decadal scale recurrence of severe drought provides a basis for understanding the causal linkages between drought conditions and impacts. This article is categorized under: Human Water & Value of Water Science of Water & Water Extremes.
OBJECTIVES: We aimed to characterize polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the breathing zone and on the skin of wildland firefighters and to assess their contribution to urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HP) over repeated firefighting rotations. We asked if improved skin hygiene or discretionary use of an N95 mask would reduce absorption. METHODS: In collaboration with wildfire services of two Canadian provinces, Alberta and British Columbia (BC), we recruited wildland firefighters from crews willing to be followed up over successive rotations and to be randomly assigned to normal practice, enhanced skin hygiene (ESH), or ESH plus discretionary use of an N95 mask. We collected spot urine samples at the beginning and end of up to four rotations/firefighter. On designated fire days, as close as possible to the end of rotation, we collected skin wipes from the hands, throat, and chest at the beginning and end of the fire day and, in BC, start of fire-day urine samples. Volunteers carried air monitoring pumps. Participants completed questionnaires at the beginning and end of rotations. Exposure since the start of the fire season was estimated from fire service records. Urinary 1-HP was analyzed by LC-MS-MS. Analysis of 21 PAHs on skin wipes and 27 PAHs from air sampling was done by GC-MS-MS. Statistical analysis used a linear mixed effects model. RESULTS: Firefighters in Alberta were recruited from five helitack crews and two unit crews, and in BC from two unit crews with 80 firefighters providing data overall. The fire season in BC was very active with five monitored fire days. In Alberta, with more crews, there were only seven fire days. Overall, log 1-HP/creatinine (ng/g) increased significantly from the start (N = 145) to end of rotation (N = 136). Only three PAHs (naphthalene, phenanthrene, and pyrene) were found on >20% of skin wipes. PAHs from 40 air monitoring pumps included 10 PAHs detected on cassette filters (particles) and 5 on sorbent tubes (vapor phase). A principal component extracted from air monitoring data represented respiratory exposure and total PAH from skin wipes summarized skin exposure. Both routes contributed to the end of rotation urinary 1-HP. The ESH intervention was not demonstrated to effect absorption. Allocation of an N95 mask was associated with lower 1-HP when modeling respiratory exposure (β = -0.62, 95% CI -1.15 to -0.10: P = 0.021). End of rotation 1-HP was related to 1-HP at the start of the next rotation (β = 0.25, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.39: P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Exposures to PAHs during firefighting were significant, with samples exceeding the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Biological Exposure Index for 1-HP suggesting a need for control of exposure. PAH exposure accumulated during the rotation and was not fully eliminated during the break between rotations. Both respiratory and skin exposures contributed to 1-HP. While improved skin hygiene may potentially reduce dermal absorption, that was not demonstrated here. In contrast, those allocated to discretionary use of an N95 mask had reduced 1-HP excretion. Wildland firefighters in North America do not use respiratory protection, but the results of this study support more effective interventions to reduce respiratory exposure.
Wildfires can significantly impact air quality and human health. However, little is known about how different fuel bed components contribute to these impacts. This study investigates the air quality impacts of duff and peat consumption during wildfires in the southeastern United States, with a focus on the differing contributions of fine particulate matter less than 2.5 mu m in size (PM2.5) and ozone (O-3) to air quality episodes associated with the four largest wildfire events in the region during this century. The emissions of duff burning were estimated based on a field measurement of a 2016 southern Appalachian fire. The emissions from the burning of other fuels were obtained from the Fire INventory from NCAR (FINN). The air quality impacts were simulated using a three-dimensional regional air quality model. The results show the duff burning emitted PM2.5 comparable to the burning of the above-ground fuels. The simulated surface PM2.5 concentrations due to duff burning increased by 61.3% locally over a region approximately 300 km within the fire site and by 21.3% and 29.7% in remote metro Atlanta and Charlotte during the 2016 southern Appalachian fires and by 131.9% locally and by 17.7% and 24.8% in remote metro Orlando and Miami during the 2007 Okefenokee Fire. However, the simulated ozone impacts from the duff burning were negligible due to the small duff emission factors of ozone precursors such as NOx. This study suggests the need to improve the modeling of PM2.5 and the air quality, human health, and climate impacts of wildfires in moist ecosystems by including duff burning in global fire emission inventories.
Climate change-related disasters have drawn increased attention to the impact of air pollution on health. 122 children ages 9-11 years old, M(SD) = 9.91(.56), participated. Levels of particulate matter (PM2.5) near participants’ homes were obtained from the Environmental Protection Agency. Cytokines were assayed from 100 child serum samples: IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and TNFα. Autonomic physiology was indexed by pre-ejection period (PEP), respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), cardiac autonomic regulation (CAR), and cardiac autonomic balance (CAB). IL-6 was positively related to daily PM2.5 (r = .26, p = .009). IL-8 was negatively associated with monthly PM2.5 (r = -.23, p = .02). PEP was positively related to daily (r = .29, p = .001) and monthly PM2.5 (r = .18, p = .044). CAR was negatively associated with daily PM2.5 (r = -.29, p = .001). IL-10, TNFα, RSA, and CAB were not associated with PM2.5. Air pollution may increase risk of inflammation in children.
Major wildfires and heatwaves have begun to increase in frequency throughout much of the United States, particularly in western states such as California, causing increased risk to public health. Air pollution is exacerbated by both wildfires and warmer temperatures, thus adding to such risk. With climate change and the continued increase in global average temperatures, the frequency of major wildfires, heat days, and unhealthy air pollution episodes is projected to increase, resulting in the potential for compounding risks. Risks will likely vary by region and may disproportionately impact low-income communities and communities of color. In this study, we processed daily particulate matter (PM) data from over 18,000 low-cost PurpleAir sensors, along with gridMET daily maximum temperature data and government-compiled wildfire perimeter data from 2018-2020 in order to examine the occurrence of compound risk (CR) days (characterized by high temperature and high PM2.5) at the census tract level in California, and to understand how such days have been impacted by the occurrence of wildfires. Using American Community Survey data, we also examined the extent to which CR days were correlated with household income, race/ethnicity, education, and other socioeconomic factors at the census tract level. Results showed census tracts with a higher frequency of CR days to have statistically higher rates of poverty and unemployment, along with high proportions of child residents and households without computers. The frequency of CR days and elevated daily PM2.5 concentrations appeared to be strongly related to the occurrence of nearby wildfires, with over 20% of days with sensor-measured average PM2.5 > 35 mu g/m(3) showing a wildfire within a 100 km radius and over two-thirds of estimated CR days falling on such days with a nearby wildfire. Findings from this study are important to policymakers and government agencies who preside over the allocation of state resources as well as organizations seeking to empower residents and establish climate resilient communities.
BACKGROUND: On May 3, 2016, residents of Fort McMurray Wood Buffalo, Alberta were evacuated due to an uncontrolled wildfire. The short-notice evacuation had destabilizing consequences for residents, including changes in routines, loss of control, and increased uncertainty. These consequences were especially detrimental to women who were pregnant or pre-conception during the evacuation. Pregnant and pre-conception women are particularly susceptible to a vast range of negative consequences during and post natural disasters, including elevated stress and higher incidence of pregnancy complications including gestational diabetes mellitus, pregnancy induced hypertension and C-section. The aim of this study was to understand the experiences, perceived stress and resilience of women who were pregnant during the wildfire. As well as to explore potential interventions to promote the health and enhance resilience of pregnant women and to assist in recovery after exposure to a natural disaster or other traumatic events. METHODS: A qualitative thematic analysis of 16 narratives penned by pregnant women and recounted in Ashley Tobin’s compilations 93/88,000 and 159 More/ 88,000: Stories of Evacuation, Re-Entry and the In-Between was conducted. RESULTS: Analysis revealed five key themes: (1) experience of stress responses due to personal and external factors, (2) social connectedness and support as a facilitator of resilience, (3) performance of resilience-enhancing activities, (4) the roles of pregnancy and motherhood in the experiences of loss and resilience, and (5) the importance of home. CONCLUSION: Pregnant women have unique barriers that may negatively impact them during a natural disaster or other form of stressful event. They may benefit from assistance with navigating role transition during pregnancy, training in stress management strategies, and writing interventions to build resiliency and begin the process of recovery from trauma.
OBJECTIVES: The increase in global wildland fire activity has accelerated the urgency to understand health risks associated with wildland fire suppression. The aim of this project was to identify occupational health research priorities for wildland firefighters and related personnel. DESIGN: In order to identify, rank and rate health research priorities, we followed a modified Delphi approach. Data collection involved a two-stage online survey followed by semi-structured interviews. SETTING: British Columbia, Canada. PARTICIPANTS: Participants included any current or past wildland firefighter or individuals engaged in related roles. There were 132 respondents to the first survey. Responses to the first survey were analysed to produce 10 research topics which were ranked by 75 participants in the second survey (response rate: 84%). PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome was the identification, ranking and level of agreement of research priorities through a two-round online survey. We contextualised these findings through deductive and inductive qualitative content analysis of semi-structured interviews. RESULTS: The most important research priorities identified were (% consensus): effects of smoke inhalation on respiratory health (89%), fatigue and sleep (80%), mental health (78%), stress (76%) and long-term risk of disease (67%). Interviews were completed with 14 individuals. Two main themes were developed from an inductive content analysis of interview transcripts: (1) understanding the dynamic risk environment; and (2) organisational fit of mitigation strategies. CONCLUSIONS: Participants expressed a general concern with the unknown mental and physical health impacts of their jobs, including the long-term risk of morbidity and mortality. Future research must address knowledge gaps in our understanding of the health impacts of wildland fire and work to develop appropriate mitigation strategies while considering the needs of workers and unpredictable workplace environment. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: Open Science Framework, https://osf.io/ugz4s/.
Rising emissions from wildfires over recent decades in the Pacific Northwest are known to counteract the reductions in human-produced aerosol pollution over North America. Since amplified Pacific Northwest wildfires are predicted under accelerating climate change, it is essential to understand both local and transported contributions to air pollution in North America. Here, we find corresponding increases for carbon monoxide emitted from the Pacific Northwest wildfires and observe significant impacts on both local and down-wind air pollution. Between 2002 and 2018, the Pacific Northwest atmospheric carbon monoxide abundance increased in August, while other months showed decreasing carbon monoxide, so modifying the seasonal pattern. These seasonal pattern changes extend over large regions of North America, to the Central USA and Northeast North America regions, indicating that transported wildfire pollution could potentially impact the health of millions of people.
Exposure to wildfire smoke increases the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions. Health impact assessments, used to inform decision-making processes, characterize the health impacts of environmental exposures by combining preexisting epidemiological concentration-response functions (CRFs) with estimates of exposure. These two key inputs influence the magnitude and uncertainty of the health impacts estimated, but for wildfire-related impact assessments the extent of their impact is largely unknown. We first estimated the number of respiratory, cardiovascular, and asthma hospital admissions attributable to fire-originated PM2.5 exposure in central California during the October 2017 wildfires, using Monte Carlo simulations to quantify uncertainty with respect to the exposure and epidemiological inputs. We next conducted sensitivity analyses, comparing four estimates of fire-originated PM2.5 and two CRFs, wildfire and nonwildfire specific, to understand their impact on the estimation of excess admissions and sources of uncertainty. We estimate the fires accounted for an excess 240 (95% CI: 114, 404) respiratory, 68 (95% CI: -10, 159) cardiovascular, and 45 (95% CI: 18, 81) asthma hospital admissions, with 56% of admissions occurring in the Bay Area. Although differences between impact assessment methods are not statistically significant, the admissions estimates’ magnitude is particularly sensitive to the CRF specified while the uncertainty is most sensitive to estimates of fire-originated PM2.5. Not accounting for the exposure surface’s uncertainty leads to an underestimation of the uncertainty of the health impacts estimated. Employing context-specific CRFs and using accurate exposure estimates that combine multiple data sets generates more certain estimates of the acute health impacts of wildfires.
Wildfire smoke is one of the most significant concerns of human and environmental health, associated with its substantial impacts on air quality, weather, and climate. However, biomass burning emissions and smoke remain among the largest sources of uncertainties in air quality forecasts. In this study, we evaluate the smoke emissions and plume forecasts from 12 state-of-the-art air quality forecasting systems during the Williams Flats fire in Washington State, US, August 2019, which was intensively observed during the Fire Influence on Regional to Global Environments and Air Quality (FIREX-AQ) field campaign. Model forecasts with lead times within 1 d are intercompared under the same framework based on observations from multiple platforms to reveal their performance regarding fire emissions, aerosol optical depth (AOD), surface PM2.5, plume injection, and surface PM2.5 to AOD ratio. The comparison of smoke organic carbon (OC) emissions suggests a large range of daily totals among the models, with a factor of 20 to 50. Limited representations of the diurnal patterns and day-to-day variations of emissions highlight the need to incorporate new methodologies to predict the temporal evolution and reduce uncertainty of smoke emission estimates. The evaluation of smoke AOD (sAOD) forecasts suggests overall underpredictions in both the magnitude and smoke plume area for nearly all models, although the high-resolution models have a better representation of the fine-scale structures of smoke plumes. The models driven by fire radiative power (FRP)-based fire emissions or assimilating satellite AOD data generally outperform the others. Additionally, limitations of the persistence assumption used when predicting smoke emissions are revealed by substantial underpredictions of sAOD on 8 August 2019, mainly over the transported smoke plumes, owing to the underestimated emissions on 7 August. In contrast, the surface smoke PM2.5 (sPM(2.5)) forecasts show both positive and negative overall biases for these models, with most members presenting more considerable diurnal variations of sPM(2.5). Overpredictions of sPM(2.5) are found for the models driven by FRP-based emissions during nighttime, suggesting the necessity to improve vertical emission allocation within and above the planetary boundary layer (PBL). Smoke injection heights are further evaluated using the NASA Langley Research Center’s Differential Absorption High Spectral Resolution Lidar (DIAL-HSRL) data collected during the flight observations. As the fire became stronger over 38 August, the plume height became deeper, with a day-today range of about 2-9 km a.g.l. However, narrower ranges are found for all models, with a tendency of overpredicting the plume heights for the shallower injection transects and underpredicting for the days showing deeper injections. The misrepresented plume injection heights lead to inaccurate vertical plume allocations along the transects corresponding to transported smoke that is 1 d old. Discrepancies in model performance for surface PM2.5 and AOD are further suggested by the evaluation of their ratio, which cannot be compensated for by solely adjusting the smoke emissions but are more attributable to model representations of plume injections, besides other possible factors including the evolution of PBL depths and aerosol optical property assumptions. By consolidating multiple forecast systems, these results provide strategic insight on pathways to improve smoke forecasts.
Background: Recent increases in wildfire frequency and severity necessitate better understanding of health effects of wildfire smoke to protect affected populations. Objectives: We examined relationships between fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and morbidity during wildfires in California, and whether those relationships differed during the fire compared to a similar non-fire period. Methods: For nine San Francisco Bay Area counties, daily county- level diagnosis-specific counts of emergency department visits (EDVs) and hospitalizations were linked with county-level estimates of daily mean PM2.5 during the October 2017 Northern California wildfires and similar October days in 2015, 2016, and 2017. Associations were estimated using Poisson regression. Results: The median difference between county PM2.5 during the fire versus the non-fire period was 23.4 mu g/ m3, with days exceeding 80 mu g/m3 in some counties. Over the entire study period, PM2.5 was most consistently linked to EDVs for respiratory disease ( RREDV(lag0) per 23.4 mu g/ m3 increase: 1.25, 95% CI: 1.21, 1.30), asthma, chronic lower respiratory disease (CLRD; RREDV(lag0): 1.18, 95% CI: 1.10, 1.27), and acute myocardial infarction (RREDV(lag0): 1.14, 95% CI: 1.03, 1.25). Increases in acute upper respiratory infections and decreases in mental/behavioral EDVs were observed but were sensitive to model specification, specifically the inclusion of time-related covariates. Comparing fire and non-fire period EDV associations, we observed indications that PM2.5 during the fire was more strongly associated with asthma (RRlag0: 1.46, 95% CI: 1.38, 1.55) compared to non-fire period PM2.5 (RRlag0: 0.77, 95% CI: 0.55, 1.08), and the opposite observed for dysrhythmia, with the asthma difference being particularly robust to model choice. For hospitalizations, the most robust PM2.5 relationships were positive associations with respiratory, CLRD, and diabetes, and inverse associations with pneumonia. Respiratory and CLRD effect estimates were generally similar or smaller than for EDVs. Conclusions: Elevated short-term PM2.5 levels from wildfire smoke appears to impact respiratory and other health domains. (c) 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Exposure to airborne fine particles with diameters <= 2.5 mu m (PM2.5) pollution is a well-established cause of respiratory diseases in children; whether wildfire-specific PM2.5 causes more damage, however, remains uncertain. We examine the associations between wildfire-specific PM2.5 and pediatric respiratory health during the period 2011-2017 in San Diego County, California, and compare these results with other sources of PM2.5. METHODS: Visits to emergency and urgent care facilities of Rady's Children Hospital network in San Diego County, California, by individuals (aged <= 19 years) with >= 1 of the following respiratory conditions: difficulty breathing, respiratory distress, wheezing, asthma, or cough were regressed on daily, community-level exposure to wildfire-specific PM2.5 and PM2.5 from ambient sources (eg, traffic emissions). RESULTS: A 10-unit increase in PM2.5 (from nonsmoke sources) was estimated to increase the number of admissions by 3.7% (95% confidence interval: 1.2% to 6.1%). In contrast, the effect of PM2.5 attributable to wildfire was estimated to be a 30.0% (95% confidence interval: 26.6% to 33.4%) increase in visits. CONCLUSIONS: Wildfire-specific PM2.5 was found to be similar to 10 times more harmful on children’s respiratory health than PM2.5 from other sources, particularly for children aged 0 to 5 years. Even relatively modest wildfires and associated PM2.5 resolved on our record produced major health impacts, particularly for younger children, in comparison with ambient PM2.5.
Major wildfires starting in the summer of 2020 along the west coast of the United States made PM2.5 concentrations in this region rank among the highest in the world. Washington was impacted both by active wildfires in the state and aged wood smoke transported from fires in Oregon and California. This study aims to estimate the magnitude and disproportionate spatial impacts of increased PM2.5 concentrations attributable to these wildfires on population health. Daily PM2.5 concentrations for each county before and during the 2020 Washington wildfire episode (September 7-19) were obtained from regulatory air monitors. Utilizing previously established concentration-response function (CRF) of PM2.5 (CRF of total PM2.5) and odds ratio (OR) of wildfire smoke days (OR of wildfire smoke days) for mortality, we estimated excess mortality attributable to the increased PM2.5 concentrations in Washington. On average, daily PM2.5 concentrations increased 97.1 mu g/m(3) during the wildfire smoke episode. With CRF of total PM2.5, the 13-day exposure to wildfire smoke was estimated to lead to 92.2 (95% CI: 0.0, 178.7) more all-cause mortality cases; with OR of wildfire smoke days, 38.4 (95% CI: 0.0, 93.3) increased all-cause mortality cases and 15.1 (95% CI: 0.0, 27.9) increased respiratory mortality cases were attributable to the wildfire smoke episode. The potential impact of avoiding elevated PM2.5 exposures during wildfire events significantly reduced the mortality burden. Because wildfire smoke episodes are likely to impact the Pacific Northwest in future years, continued preparedness and mitigations to reduce exposures to wildfire smoke are necessary to avoid excess health burden.
Increases in wildfire activity across the Western US pose a significant public health threat. While there is evidence that wildfire smoke is detrimental for respiratory health, the impacts on cardiovascular health remain unclear. This study evaluates the association between fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) from wildfire smoke and unscheduled cardiorespiratory hospital visits in California during the 2004-2009 wildfire seasons. We estimate daily mean wildfire-specific PM(2.5) with Goddard Earth Observing System-Chem, a global three-dimensional model of atmospheric chemistry, with wildfire emissions estimates from the Global Fire Emissions Database. We defined a “smoke event day” as cumulative 0-1-day lag wildfire-specific PM(2.5) ≥ 98th percentile of cumulative 0-1 lag day wildfire PM(2.5). Associations between exposure and outcomes are estimated using negative binomial regression. Results indicate that smoke event days are associated with a 3.3% (95% CI: [0.4%, 6.3%]) increase in visits for all respiratory diseases and a 10.3% (95% CI: [2.3%, 19.0%]) increase for asthma specifically. Stratifying by age, we found the largest effect for asthma among children ages 0-5 years. We observed no significant association between exposure and overall cardiovascular disease, but stratified analyses revealed increases in visits for all cardiovascular, ischemic heart disease, and heart failure among non-Hispanic white individuals and those older than 65 years. Further, we found a significant interaction between smoke event days and daily average temperature for all cardiovascular disease visits, suggesting that days with high wildfire PM(2.5) concentrations and high temperatures may pose greater risk for cardiovascular disease. These results suggest substantial increases in adverse outcomes from wildfire smoke exposure and indicate the need for improved prevention strategies and adaptations to protect vulnerable populations.
This study proposes an approach to improve the spatial resolution of ground-level concentrations of PM2.5 that is required to assess health risks associated with exposure to pollutants released during wildfires. We use this approach to analyze the impact on air quality of the wildfire complex consisting of the Atlas, Nuns, Tubbs, Pocket, and Redwood Valley fires in northern California that started on October 8, 2017 and the Camp Fire in northern California that was first reported on November 8, 2018. The PM2.5 concentrations measured in populated areas downwind of these fires were well above the 24-h standard of 35 mu g/m3 during several days of both fires. To estimate health risks at locations where ground-based monitors did not provide sufficient spatial coverage we first estimate the emissions from the fires by fitting concentration estimates from two models, a Lagrangian model and a segmented plume dispersion model, to corresponding concentrations from ground monitors. We also use a power law model to fit the measured PM2.5 concentrations to the ratio of aerosol optical depth (AOD) to planetary boundary layer measured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) carried by NASA’s Terra and Aqua satellites. Dispersion model estimates are then combined with estimates from the AOD model to compute ground-level concentrations at a resolution of 1 km. Kriged residuals between estimates from the combined model and measured PM2.5 concentrations are then added to obtain high resolution maps that can be used for exposure studies.
Background: Wildfire smoke is responsible for around 20% of all particulate emissions in the U.S. and affects millions of people worldwide. Children are especially vulnerable, as ambient air pollution exposure during early childhood is associated with reduced lung function. Most studies, however, have focused on the short-term impacts of wildfire smoke exposures. We aimed to identify long-term baseline epigenetic changes associated with early-life exposure to wildfire smoke. We collected nasal epithelium samples for whole genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) from two groups of adult female rhesus macaques: one group born just before the 2008 California wildfire season and exposed to wildfire smoke during early-life (n = 8), and the other group born in 2009 with no wildfire smoke exposure during early-life (n = 14). RNA-sequencing was also performed on a subset of these samples. Results: We identified 3370 differentially methylated regions (DMRs) (difference in methylation ≥5%, empirical p < 0.05) and 1 differentially expressed gene (FLOT2) (FDR < 0.05, fold of change ≥ 1.2). The DMRs were annotated to genes significantly enriched for synaptogenesis signaling, protein kinase A signaling, and a variety of immune processes, and some DMRs significantly correlated with gene expression differences. DMRs were also significantly enriched within regions of bivalent chromatin (top odds ratio = 1.46, q-value < 3 x 10^(-6)) that often silence key developmental genes while keeping them poised for activation in pluripotent cells. Conclusions: These data suggest that early-life exposure to wildfire smoke leads to long-term changes in the methylome over genes impacting the nervous and immune systems. Follow-up studies will be required to test whether these changes influence transcription following an immune/respiratory challenge.
Objective: The California Emergency Medical Services Authority manages and deploys California Medical Assistance Teams (CAL-MAT) to disaster medical incidents in the state. This analysis reviews diagnoses for ambulatory medical visits at multiple wildland fire incident base camp field sites in California during the 2020 fire season. Methods: Clinical data without personal health information were extracted retrospectively from patient care records from all patients seen by a provider. Results were entered into Excel spreadsheets with calculation of summary statistics. Results: During the 2020 fire season, CAL-MAT teams deployed 21 times for a total of 327 days to base camps supporting large fire incidents and cared for 1756 patients. Impacts of heat and environmental smoke are a constant factor near wildfires; however, our most common medical problem was rhus dermatitis (54.5%) due to poison oak. All 2020 medical missions were further complicated by prevention and management of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Conclusions: There is very little literature regarding the acute medical needs facing responders fighting wildland fires. Ninety-five percent of clinical conditions presenting to a field medical team at the wildfire incident base camp during a severe fire season in California can be managed by small teams operating in field tents.
Driven by climate change, wildfires are increasing in frequency, duration, and intensity across the Western United States. Outdoor workers are being exposed to increasing wildfire-related particulate matter and smoke. Recognizing this emerging risk, Washington adopted an emergency rule and is presently engaged in creating a permanent rule to protect outdoor workers from wildfire smoke exposure. While there are growing bodies of literature on the exposure to and health effects of wildfire smoke in the general public and wildland firefighters, there is a gap in knowledge about wildfire smoke exposure among outdoor workers generally and construction workers specifically-a large category of outdoor workers in Washington totaling 200,000 people. Several data sources were linked in this study-including state-collected employment data and national ambient air quality data-to gain insight into the risk of PM2.5 exposure among construction workers and evaluate the impacts of different air quality thresholds that would have triggered a new Washington emergency wildfire smoke rule aimed at protecting workers from high PM2.5 exposure. Results indicate the number of poor air quality days has increased in August and September in recent years. Over the last decade, these months with the greatest potential for particulate matter exposure coincided with an annual peak in construction employment that was typically 9.4-42.7% larger across Washington counties (one county was 75.8%). Lastly, the ‘encouraged’ threshold of the Washington emergency rule (20.5 mu g m(-3)) would have resulted in 5.5 times more days subject to the wildfire rule on average across all Washington counties compared to its ‘required’ threshold (55.5 mu g m(-3)), and in 2020, the rule could have created demand for 1.35 million N-95 filtering facepiece respirators among construction workers. These results have important implications for both employers and policy makers as rules are developed. The potential policy implications of wildfire smoke exposure, exposure control strategies, and data gaps that would improve understanding of construction worker exposure to wildfire smoke are also discussed.
Frequent and widespread wildfires in the northwestern United States and Canada have become the “new normal” during the Northern Hemisphere summer months, which significantly degrades particulate matter air quality in the United States. Using the mid-visible Multi Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) satellitederived aerosol optical depth (AOD) with meteorological information from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and other ancillary data, we quantify the impact of these fires on fine particulate matter concentration (PM2.5) air quality in the United States. We use a geographically weighted regression (GWR) method to estimate surface PM2.5 in the United States between low (2011) and high (2018) fire activity years. Our results indicate an overall leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) R-2 value of 0.797 with root mean square error (RMSE) between 3 and 5 mu gm(-3). Our results indicate that smoke aerosols caused significant pollution changes over half of the United States. We estimate that nearly 29 states have increased PM2.5 during the fire-active year and that 15 of these states have PM2.5 concentrations more than 2 times that of the inactive year. Furthermore, these fires increased the daily mean surface PM2.5 concentrations in Washington and Oregon by 38 to 259 mu gm(-3), posing significant health risks especially to vulnerable populations. Our results also show that the GWR model can be successfully applied to PM2.5 estimations from wildfires, thereby providing useful information for various applications such as public health assessment.
Introduction: Wildfire smoke (WFS) exposure is a growing threat to human health, and lower socioeconomic position (SEP) has been shown to increase pollution susceptibility. Studies of SEP-related susceptibility, however, are often compromised due to spatial confounding between lower-SEP and pollution. Here we examine outdoorhoused nonhuman primates, living in natural social hierarchy in a common location, born during years of high vs. low WFS, to examine the separate and combined effects of WFS and social rank, an analog to SEP, on lung and immune function. Methods: Twenty-one females were born during extreme WFS events in summer 2008; 22 were born in summer 2009, during low WFS. Pulmonary function and circulating cytokines were measured three years later, in adolescence. We estimated fine particulate (PM2.5) and ozone exposures during each animal’s first 90 days and three years of age using regulatory data. Early-life social status was estimated using maternal rank at birth, as rank in females is relatively stable throughout life, and closely approximates mother’s rank. We tested associations among WFS exposure, rank, and endpoints using linear regression and ANOVA. Results: Higher WFS exposure in infancy was, on average, associated with lower functional residual capacity (FRC), residual volume (RV), tissue compliance (Ct), and IL-8 secretion in adolescence. Higher social rank conferred significantly higher expiratory reserve volume (ERV) and functional residual capacity (FRC) solely among those born in the high-WFS year (2008). Differences in effects of rank between years were not significant after adjustment for multiple comparisons. Conclusions: Exposure to WFS in infancy generally conferred lower adolescent respiratory volumes and inflammatory cytokines. Higher rank conferred higher respiratory volumes only among females born during WFS, suggesting the possibility that the health benefits of rank may be more apparent under environmental challenge.
BACKGROUND: Global climate change has led to an increase in the prevalence and severity of wildfires. Pollutants released into air, soil and groundwater from wildfires may impact embryo development leading to gastroschisis. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine the association between wildfire exposure before and during pregnancy and the risk of foetal gastroschisis development. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study using The California Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development Linked Birth File linked to The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection data between 2007 and 2010. Pregnancies complicated by foetal gastroschisis were identified by neonatal hospital discharge ICD-9 code. Pregnancies were considered exposed to wildfire if the mother’s primary residence zip code was within 15 miles to the closest edge of a wildfire. The exposure was further stratified by trimester or if exposed within 30 days prior to pregnancy. Multivariable log-binomial regression analyses were performed to estimate the association between wildfire exposure in each pregnancy epoch and foetal gastroschisis. RESULTS: Between 2007 and 2010, 844,348 (40%) births were exposed to wildfire in California. Compared with births without wildfire exposure, those with first-trimester exposure were associated with higher rates of gastroschisis, 7.8 vs. 5.7 per 10,000 births (adjusted relative risk [aRR] 1.28, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.07, 1.54). Furthermore, those with prepregnancy wildfire exposure were also found to have higher rates of gastroschisis, 12.5 vs. 5.7 per 10,000 births, (aRR 2.17, 95% CI 1.42, 3.52). In contrast, second- and third-trimester wildfire exposures were not associated with foetal gastroschisis. CONCLUSIONS: Wildfire exposure within 30 days before pregnancy was associated with more than two times higher risk of foetal gastroschisis, whereas a 28% higher risk was demonstrated if exposure was in the first trimester.
The increased risk of wildfires and associated smoke exposure in the United States is a growing public health problem, particularly along the Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI). Using the measure of fire danger, the Energy Release Component, we define fire danger as the onset and duration of fire season, in the continental US, between 1979 and 2016. We then combine the measure of fire danger with census data to quantify changes in population fire exposure across the WUI. We determined that the largest increases in fire danger were observed in the Southwest, Intermountain, and Pacific Southwest regions. The increased fire danger, specifically during peak fire season, accounted for 6.1 more fires each year and 78,000 more acres burned each year, underscoring the link between fire danger and the risks of large fire occurrence and burn acreage. Finally, we observed significant population growth (121.2% between 1990 and 2010) within high-danger WUI areas, further implying significant increases in potential fire exposure.
Alaskan wildfires have major ecological, social, and economic consequences, but associated health impacts remain unexplored. We estimated cardiorespiratory morbidity associated with wildfire smoke (WFS) fine particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM(2.5)) in three major population centers (Anchorage, Fairbanks, and the Matanuska-Susitna Valley) during the 2015-2019 wildfire seasons. To estimate WFS PM(2.5), we utilized data from ground-based monitors and satellite-based smoke plume estimates. We implemented time-stratified case-crossover analyses with single and distributed lag models to estimate the effect of WFS PM(2.5) on cardiorespiratory emergency department (ED) visits. On the day of exposure to WFS PM(2.5), there was an increased odds of asthma-related ED visits among 15-65 year olds (OR = 1.12, 95% CI = 1.08, 1.16), people >65 years (OR = 1.15, 95% CI = 1.01, 1.31), among Alaska Native people (OR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.09, 1.23), and in Anchorage (OR = 1.10, 95% CI = 1.05, 1.15) and Fairbanks (OR = 1.12, 95% CI = 1.07, 1.17). There was an increased risk of heart failure related ED visits for Alaska Native people (Lag Day 5 OR = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.02, 1.25). We found evidence that rural populations may delay seeking care. As the frequency and magnitude of Alaskan wildfires continue to increase due to climate change, understanding the health impacts will be imperative. A nuanced understanding of the effects of WFS on specific demographic and geographic groups facilitates data-driven public health interventions and fire management protocols that address these adverse health effects.
Context: Wildfire events are increasing in prevalence and intensity in the Pacific Northwest. Effective communication of health risks and actions to reduce exposure to wildfire smoke is imperative. Objective: We assessed the content of wildfire smoke risk messages from government organizations and mainstream media during a major wildfire smoke event in August 2018. Design: We conducted a content analysis of wildfire smoke risk information communicated by local and state government organizations and the mainstream media. Setting: Eight Washington State counties during a statewide wildfire smoke event in August 2018. Main Outcome Measure: Leveraging the Extended Parallel Process Model and information in the existing literature on wildfire smoke and health, we assessed messages for the presence of information regarding health risk, personal interventions, administrative interventions, vulnerable populations, and trusted sources of information. Summary statistics were calculated to identify common messages about recommended interventions, vulnerable populations cited, and trusted sources of public health information. Results: Of the 273 identified government and media messages on wildfire smoke, the majority (71% and 66%) contained information about health risks. However, only 46% and 33% of government and media messages contained information about personal interventions to reduce risk, and 37% and 14% of government and media messages contained information about administrative interventions to reduce risk. Less than half of government and media messages (28% and 31%) contained information specific to vulnerable populations, and 58% and 46% of government and media messages contained any reference to a trusted source of information. Conclusions: While information about wildfire smoke and health risks was communicated during Washington’s August 2018 wildfire smoke event, there remains considerable opportunity to include additional information about interventions, vulnerable populations, and trusted sources of information. We recommend several opportunities to improve and evaluate risk communication and risk reduction before, during, and after future wildfire smoke events.
Background: The modular British Columbia Asthma Prediction System (BCAPS) is designed to reduce information burden during wildfire smoke events by automatically gathering, integrating, generating, and visualizing data for public health users. The BCAPS framework comprises five flexible and geographically scalable modules: (1) historic data on fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations; (2) historic data on relevant health indicator counts; (3) PM2.5 forecasts for the upcoming days; (4) a health forecasting model that uses the relationship between (1) and (2) to predict the impacts of (3); and (5) a reporting mechanism. Methods: The 2018 wildfire season was the most extreme in British Columbia history. Every morning BCAPS generated forecasts of salbutamol sulfate (e.g., Ventolin) inhaler dispensations for the upcoming days in 16 Health Service Delivery Areas (HSDAs) using random forest machine learning. These forecasts were compared with observations over a 63-day study period using different methods including the index of agreement (IOA), which ranges from 0 (no agreement) to 1 (perfect agreement). Some observations were compared with the same period in the milder wildfire season of 2016 for context. Results: The mean province-wide population-weighted PM2.5 concentration over the study period was 22.0 mu g/m(3), compared with 4.2 mu g/m(3) during the milder wildfire season of 2016. The PM2.5 forecasts underpredicted the severe smoke impacts, but the IOA was relatively strong with a population-weighted average of 0.85, ranging from 0.65 to 0.95 among the HSDAs. Inhaler dispensations increased by 30% over 2016 values. Forecasted dispensations were within 20% of the observed value in 71% of cases, and the IOA was strong with a population-weighted average of 0.95, ranging from 0.92 to 0.98. All measures of agreement were correlated with HSDA population, where BCAPS performance was better in the larger populations with more moderate smoke impacts. The accuracy of the health forecasts was partially dependent on the accuracy of the PM2.5 forecasts, but they were robust to over- and underpredictions of PM2.5 exposure. Conclusions: Daily reports from the BCAPS framework provided timely and reasonable insight into the population health impacts of predicted smoke exposures, though more work is necessary to improve the PM2.5 and health indicator forecasts.
Wildfire smoke exposure is associated with a range of acute health outcomes, which can be more severe in individuals with underlying health conditions. Currently, there is limited information on the susceptibility of healthcare facilities to smoke infiltration. As part of a larger study to address this gap, a rehabilitation facility in Vancouver, Canada was outfitted with one outdoor and seven indoor low-cost fine particulate matter (PM2.5) sensors in Air Quality Eggs (EGG) during the summer of 2020. Raw measurements were calibrated using temperature, relative humidity, and dew point derived from the EGG data. The infiltration coefficient was quantified using a distributed lag model. Indoor concentrations during the smoke episode were elevated throughout the building, though non-uniformly. After censoring indoor-only peaks, the average infiltration coefficient (range) during typical days was 0.32 (0.22-0.39), compared with 0.37 (0.31-0.47) during the smoke episode, a 19% increase on average. Indoor PM2.5 concentrations quickly reflected outdoor conditions during and after the smoke episode. It is unclear whether these results will be generalizable to other years due to COVID-related changes to building operations, but some of the safety protocols may offer valuable lessons for future wildfire seasons. For example, points of building entry and exit were reduced from eight to two during the pandemic, which likely helped to protect the building from wildfire smoke infiltration. Overall, these results demonstrate the utility of indoor low-cost sensors in understanding the impacts of extreme smoke events on facilities where highly susceptible individuals are present. Furthermore, they highlight the need to employ interventions that enhance indoor air quality in such facilities during smoke events.
Wildfires can be detrimental to urban and rural communities, causing impacts in the form of psychological stress, direct physical injury, and smoke-related morbidity and mortality. This study examined the area burned by wildfires over the entire state of California from the years 2000 to 2020 in order to quantify and identify whether burned area and fire frequency differed across Census tracts according to socioeconomic indicators over time. Wildfire data were obtained from the California Fire and Resource Assessment Program (FRAP) and National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC), while demographic data were obtained from the American Community Survey. Results showed a doubling in the number of Census tracts that experienced major wildfires and a near doubling in the number of people residing in wildfire-impacted Census tracts, mostly due to an over 23,000 acre/year increase in the area burned by wildfires over the last two decades. Census tracts with a higher fire frequency and burned area had lower proportions of minority groups on average. However, when considering Native American populations, a greater proportion resided in highly impacted Census tracts. Such Census tracts also had higher proportions of older residents. In general, high-impact Census tracts tended to have higher proportions of low-income residents and lower proportions of high-income residents, as well as lower median household incomes and home values. These findings are important to policymakers and state agencies as it relates to environmental justice and the allocation of resources before, during, and after wildfires in the state of California.
The health impacts of wildfire smoke are an important and growing global issue, as extreme wildfire events are expected to increase in frequency and intensity throughout this century due to climate change. Research into individual protective health decision-making can elucidate how wildfire smoke exposure contributes to adverse health outcomes and aid in public health interventions to mitigate risks. In this study we investigate the role of psychological factors (threat and efficacy perceptions) and social processes (social norms and social support) in shaping protective behavior in response to wildfire smoke. Through semi-structured interviews of forty-five individuals in Northern California, we explore perceptions of threat and efficacy, social processes, and protective behaviors in response to wildfire smoke events between 2018 and 2020. We found that for many participants sensory experiences and engagement with wildfire smoke information were instrumental in forming perceptions of threat and efficacy. Three themes related to social processes emerged: interpreting information together, protecting vulnerable others, and questioning protective actions. Through these themes we show how social norms and social support interact in complex, non-linear ways to influence threat and efficacy perceptions, and directly affect protective health behavior. Finally, we propose a conceptual framework of wildfire smoke protective behavior. This study contributes to a growing body of knowledge within the disaster risk and protective health literatures related to wildfire smoke response. Our findings demonstrate how the study of psychological factors and social processes during natural hazards, like wildfire smoke events, is essential to understanding individual protective health decision-making pathways and ultimately, to developing a more comprehensive view of how individual actions affect exposure.
Background We studied the impact of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure due to a remote wildfire event in the Pacific Northwest on daily outpatient respiratory and cardiovascular physician visits during wildfire (24-31 August, 2015) and post-wildfire period (1-30 September, 2015) relative to the pre-wildfire period (1-23 August, 2015) in the city of Calgary, Canada. Methods A quasi-Poisson regression model was used for modelling daily counts of physician visits due to PM2.5 while adjusting for day of the week (weekday versus weekend or public holiday), wildfire exposure period (before, during, after), methane, relative humidity, and wind direction. A subgroup analysis of those with pre-existing diabetes or hypertension was performed. Results An elevated risk of respiratory disease morbidity of 33% (relative risk: RR) [95% confidence interval (CI): 10%-59%] and 55% (95% CI: 42%-69%) was observed per 10 mu g/m(3) increase in PM2.5 level during and after wildfire, respectively, relative to the pre-wildfire time period. Increased risk was observed for children aged 0-9 years during (RR = 1.57, 95% CI: 1.21-2.02) and after the wildfire (RR = 2.11, 95% CI: 1.86-2.40) especially for asthma, acute bronchitis and acute respiratory infection. The risk of physician visits among seniors increased by 11% (95% CI: 3%-21%), and 19% (95% CI: 7%-33%) post-wildfire for congestive heart failure and ischaemic heart disease, respectively. Individuals with pre-existing diabetes had an increased risk of both respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity in the post-wildfire period (RR = 1.35, 95% CI: 1.09-1.67; RR = 1.22, 95% CI: 1.01-1.46, respectively). Conclusions Wildfire-related PM2.5 exposure led to increased respiratory condition-related outpatient physician visits during and after wildfires, particularly for children. An increased risk of physician visits for congestive heart failure and ischaemic heart disease among seniors in the post-wildfire period was also observed.
The increasing incidence of extreme wildfire is becoming a concern for public health. Although long-term exposure to wildfire smoke is associated with respiratory illnesses, reports on the association between short-term occupational exposure to wildfire smoke and lung function remain scarce. In this cross-sectional study, we analyzed data from 218 Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers (mean age: 38 & PLUSMN; 9 years) deployed at the Fort McMurray wildfires in 2016. Individual exposure to air pollutants was calculated by integrating the duration of exposure with the air quality parameters obtained from the nearest air quality monitoring station during the phase of deployment. Lung function was measured using spirometry and body plethysmography. Association between exposure and lung function was examined using principal component linear regression analysis, adjusting for potential confounders. In our findings, the participants were predominantly male (71%). Mean forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), and residual volume (RV) were 76.5 & PLUSMN; 5.9 and 80.1 & PLUSMN; 19.5 (% predicted). A marginal association was observed between air pollution and higher RV [beta: 1.55; 95% CI: -0.28 to 3.37 per interquartile change of air pollution index], but not with other lung function indices. The association between air pollution index and RV was significantly higher in participants who were screened within the first three months of deployment (2.80; 0.91 to 4.70) than those screened later (-0.28; -2.58 to 2.03), indicating a stronger effect of air pollution on peripheral airways. Acute short-term exposure to wildfire-associated air pollutants may impose subtle but clinically important deleterious respiratory effects, particularly in the peripheral airways.
Western North American fires have been increasing in magnitude and severity over the last few decades. The complex coupling of fires with the atmospheric energy budget and meteorology creates short-term feedbacks on regional weather altering the amount of pollution to which Americans are exposed. Using a combination of model simulations and observations, this study shows that the severe fires in the summer of 2017 increased atmospheric aerosol concentrations leading to a cooling of the air at the surface, reductions in sensible heat fluxes, and a lowering of the planetary boundary layer height over land. This combination of lower-boundary layer height and increased aerosol pollution from the fires reduces air quality. We estimate that from start of August to end of October 2017, ∼400 premature deaths occurred within the western US as a result of short-term exposure to elevated PM2.5 from fire smoke. As North America confronts a warming climate with more fires the short-term climate and pollution impacts of increased fire activity should be assessed within policy aimed to minimize impacts of climate change on society.
Background and purpose: We describe a novel, interprofessional, experiential training involving pharmacy students in response to a health emergency in rural Montana (MT). Educational activity and setting: Fourth-year pharmacy students on clinical rotations were recruited to participate in screening events assessing effects of wildfire smoke in Seeley Lake, MT. Students were required to fulfill at least two hours of supplementary training in addition to education on human research guidelines. Students assisted with patient surveys (demographics, health, and respiratory), physiological testing with biomedical researchers, blood pressure and medication counseling, and spirometry specialists. Findings: At least 20 pharmacy students have participated in this project in addition to nursing (n = 8), public health (n = 1), and social work (n = 1) students. In initial and subsequent screenings, students worked alongside a team of biomedical researchers and faculty from the University of Montana. An initial cohort of 95 patients was recruited. Summary: This unique experiential training opportunity has affordedpharmacy students access to rural community patient interaction and exposure to and performance of a variety of tests in response to an environmental health emergency. Furthermore, it enabled health professionals and researchers to assess individual and overall community health following an extreme wildfire smoke event, providing the groundwork for utilization of pharmacy students in healthcare responses to public health emergencies. (c) 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
The increased frequency of wildfires in the Western United States has raised public awareness of the impact of wildfire smoke on air quality and human health. Exposure to wildfire smoke has been linked to an increased risk of cancer and cardiorespiratory morbidity. Evidence-driven interventions can alleviate the adverse health impact of wildfire smoke. During wildfires, public health guidance is based on regional air quality data with limited spatiotemporal resolution. Recently, low-cost air quality sensors have been used in air quality studies, given their ability to capture high-resolution spatiotemporal data. We demonstrate the use of a network of low-cost particulate matter (PM) sensors to gather indoor and outdoor PM2.5 data from seven locations in the urban Seattle area, along with a personal exposure monitor worn by a resident living in one of these locations during the 2020 Washington wildfire event. The data were used to determine PM concentration indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios, PM reduction, and personal exposure levels. The result shows that locations equipped with high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters and HVAC filtration systems had significantly lower I/O ratios (median I/O = 0.43) than those without air filtration (median I/O = 0.82). The median PM2.5 reduction for the locations with HEPA is 58% compared to 20% for the locations without HEPA. The outdoor PM sensor showed a high correlation to the nearby regional air quality monitoring stations (pre-calibration R-2 = 0.92). The personal monitor showed higher variance in PM measurements as the user moved through different microenvironments and could not be fully characterized by the network of indoor or outdoor monitors. The findings imply that evidence-based interventions can be developed to reduce pollution exposure when combining data from indoor and outdoor sensors. Personal exposure monitoring captured temporal spikes in PM exposure.
Exceptional events occur when air pollution in a specific location exceeds the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) due to an event that cannot be reasonably attributed to human activities, such as a wildland fire. Ground-level ozone (O-3) and particulate matter (PM) are Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) criteria pollutants regulated under the NAAQS. Smoke from wildland fires can increase PM and O-3 concentrations downwind of fire and impact air quality, visibility, and health. Our analysis shows that the frequency of exceptional event reporting for PM with aerodynamic diameters smaller than 2.5 mu m or 10 mu m (PM2.5 and PM10) had increased since 2007 when the air quality standards became more stringent. We also show that wildland fires and windblown dust drive many exceptional events in several EPA regions. We note the importance of growth in the number of exceptional event days due to wildfire smoke in the future due to climate change and point to possible changes to the NAAQS and implementations.
Increased wildland fire activity is producing extreme fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations impacting millions of people every year, especially in the western United States (US). Recommendations for limiting exposure to PM2.5 and associated adverse health outcomes focus on staying inside, closing windows and doors, and increasing filtration; however, relatively little is known about indoor air quality (IAQ) during major smoke events. Indoor and outdoor hourly PM2.5 (µg m–3) measurements from the publicly available PurpleAir sensor (PAS) network were analyzed for 42 sites (26 residential, 6 school, 10 commercial) across the western US during a September 2020 period of heavy wildfire smoke influence. The fraction of ambient PM2.5 that penetrates indoors and remains airborne (Fin), as well as the ratio (I/O) and correlation coefficient (R2) of indoor to outdoor PM2.5 concentrations, were lower in residential compared to commercial and school buildings. Interventions to improve IAQ were highly influential in PM2.5 infiltration in residential case studies, with multiple, continuously run filter units associated with lower Fin, I/O, and R2. A low-cost PM2.5 filtration method consisting of a Minimum Efficiency Rating Value-13 (MERV-13) filter attached to a box fan is evaluated as an alternative for improving IAQ during wildland fire smoke events. The MERV-13 fan filter unit proved highly effective at reducing indoor PM2.5 and particles 0.3–1.0 µm measured by PAS and a particle counter, respectively, when recirculating air in a single room. Low-cost filtration methods can have significant benefit for filtering submicron smoke particles and may reduce exposure to PM2.5 during wildfire smoke events.
Objective(s): This study explored the feasibility, acceptability, preliminary impact, and functionality of two risk reduction mobile application (app) interventions on asthma outcomes as compared to a control arm during wildfire season. Design: Three-arm, 8-week randomized clinical trial. Sample: Sixty-seven young adults with asthma were enrolled. Measurements: The Asthma Control Test, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) and the System Usability Scale were measured at baseline, 4, and 8 weeks. The Research Attitude Scale was administered at 8 weeks. Twenty participants from the two intervention arms completed an optional survey and six were interviewed after completing the study. Intervention: Both intervention arms could access Smoke Sense Urbanova, an app that supports reducing risks from breathing wildfire smoke. The Smoke Sense Urbanova Plus arm also monitored their daily FEV1, received air quality notifications, and accessed preventive tips and a message board. Results: Most participants agreed the app and spirometer were usable and their privacy and confidentiality were maintained. No adverse events were reported. Conclusions: Participant-identified recommendations will support intervention refinement and testing. This research supports asthma self-management tools that public health nurses and community health workers can recommend for at-risk populations.
Wildland fires are diminishing air quality on a seasonal and regional basis, raising concerns about respiratory health risks to the public and occupational groups. This American Thoracic Society (ATS) workshop was convened in 2019 to meet the growing health threat of wildland fire smoke. The workshop brought together a multidisciplinary group of 19 experts, including wildland fire managers, public health officials, epidemiologists, toxicologists, and pediatric and adult pulmonologists. The workshop examined the following four major topics: 1) the science of wildland fire incidence and fire management, 2) the respiratory and cardiovascular health effects of wildland fire smoke exposure, 3) communication strategies to address these health risks, and 4) actions to address wildland fire health impacts. Through formal presentations followed by group discussion, workshop participants identified top priorities for fire management, research, communication, and public policy to address health risks of wildland fires. The workshop concluded that short-term exposure to wildland smoke causes acute respiratory health effects, especially among those with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Research is needed to understand long-term health effects of repeated smoke exposures across fire seasons for children, adults, and highly exposed occupational groups (especially firefighters). Other research priorities include fire data collection and modeling, toxicology of different fire fuel sources, and the efficacy of health protective measures to prevent respiratory effects of smoke exposure. The workshop committee recommends a unified federal response to the growing problem of wildland fires, including investment in fire behavior and smoke air quality modeling, research on the health impacts of smoke, and development of robust clinical and public health communication tools.
Recent dramatic and deadly increases in global wildfire activity have increased attention on the causes of wildfires, their consequences, and how risk from wildfire might be mitigated. Here we bring together data on the changing risk and societal burden of wildfire in the United States. We estimate that nearly 50 million homes are currently in the wildland-urban interface in the United States, a number increasing by 1 million houses every 3 y. To illustrate how changes in wildfire activity might affect air pollution and related health outcomes, and how these linkages might guide future science and policy, we develop a statistical model that relates satellite-based fire and smoke data to information from pollution monitoring stations. Using the model, we estimate that wildfires have accounted for up to 25% of PM (2.5) (particulate matter with diameter <2.5 μm) in recent years across the United States, and up to half in some Western regions, with spatial patterns in ambient smoke exposure that do not follow traditional socioeconomic pollution exposure gradients. We combine the model with stylized scenarios to show that fuel management interventions could have large health benefits and that future health impacts from climate-change-induced wildfire smoke could approach projected overall increases in temperature-related mortality from climate change-but that both estimates remain uncertain. We use model results to highlight important areas for future research and to draw lessons for policy.
Smoke impacts from large wildfires are mounting, and the projection is for more such events in the future as the one experienced October 2017 in Northern California, and subsequently in 2018 and 2020. Further, the evidence is growing about the health impacts from these events which are also difficult to simulate. Therefore, we simulated air quality conditions using a suite of remotely-sensed data, surface observational data, chemical transport modeling with WRF-CMAQ, one data fusion, and three machine learning methods to arrive at datasets useful to air quality and health impact analyses. To demonstrate these analyses, we estimated the health impacts from smoke impacts during wildfires in October 8-20, 2017, in Northern California, when over 7 million people were exposed to Unhealthy to Very Unhealthy air quality conditions. We investigated using the 5-min available GOES-16 fire detection data to simulate timing of fire activity to allocate emissions hourly for the WRF-CMAQ system. Interestingly, this approach did not necessarily improve overall results, however it was key to simulating the initial 12-hr explosive fire activity and smoke impacts. To improve these results, we applied one data fusion and three machine learning algorithms. We also had a unique opportunity to evaluate results with temporary monitors deployed specifically for wildfires, and performance was markedly different. For example, at the permanent monitoring locations, the WRF-CMAQ simulations had a Pearson correlation of 0.65, and the data fusion approach improved this (Pearson correlation = 0.95), while at the temporary monitor locations across all cases, the best Pearson correlation was 0.5. Overall, WRF-CMAQ simulations were biased high and the geostatistical methods were biased low. Finally, we applied the optimized PM2.5 exposure estimate in an exposure-response function. Estimated mortality attributable to PM2.5 exposure during the smoke episode was 83 (95% CI: 0, 196) with 47% attributable to wildland fire smoke.Implications: Large wildfires in the United States and in particular California are becoming increasingly common. Associated with these large wildfires are air quality and health impact to millions of people from the smoke. We simulated air quality conditions using a suite of remotely-sensed data, surface observational data, chemical transport modeling, one data fusion, and three machine learning methods to arrive at datasets useful to air quality and health impact analyses from the October 2017 Northern California wildfires. Temporary monitors deployed for the wildfires provided an important model evaluation dataset. Total estimated regional mortality attributable to PM2.5 exposure during the smoke episode was 83 (95% confidence interval: 0, 196) with 47% of these deaths attributable to the wildland fire smoke. This illustrates the profound effect that even a 12-day exposure to wildland fire smoke can have on human health.
Wildland fire smoke contains hazardous levels of fine particulate mat-ter (PM2.5), a pollutant shown to adversely effect health. Estimating fire at-tributable PM2.5 concentrations is key to quantifying the impact on air quality and subsequent health burden. This is a challenging problem since only to-tal PM2.5 is measured at monitoring stations and both fire-attributable PM2.5 and PM2.5 from all other sources are correlated in space and time. We propose a framework for estimating fire-contributed PM2.5 and PM2.5 from all other sources using a novel causal inference framework and bias-adjusted chemical model representations of PM2.5 under counterfactual scenarios. The chemical model representation of PM2.5 for this analysis is simulated using Commu-nity Multiscale Air Quality Modeling System (CMAQ), run with and without fire emissions across the contiguous U.S. for the 2008-2012 wildfire seasons. The CMAQ output is calibrated with observations from monitoring sites for the same spatial domain and time period. We use a Bayesian model that ac-counts for spatial variation to estimate the effect of wildland fires on PM2.5 and state assumptions under which the estimate has a valid causal interpreta-tion. Our results include estimates of the contributions of wildfire smoke to PM2.5 for the contiguous U.S. Additionally, we compute the health burden associated with the PM2.5 attributable to wildfire smoke.
Wildfire smoke is a growing public health concern in the United States. Numerous studies have documented associations between ambient smoke exposure and severe patient outcomes for single-fire seasons or limited geographic regions. However, there are few national-scale health studies of wildfire smoke in the United States, few studies investigating Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admissions as an outcome, and few specifically framed around hospital operations. This study retrospectively examined the associations between ambient wildfire-related PM2.5 at a hospital ZIP code with total hospital ICU admissions using a national-scale hospitalization data set. Wildfire smoke was characterized using a combination of kriged PM2.5 monitor observations and satellite-derived plume polygons from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Hazard Mapping System. ICU admissions data were acquired from Premier, Inc. and encompass 15%-20% of all U.S. ICU admissions during the study period. Associations were estimated using a distributed-lag conditional Poisson model under a time-stratified case-crossover design. We found that a 10 mu g/m(3) increase in daily wildfire PM2.5 was associated with a 2.7% (95% CI: 1.3, 4.1; p = 0.00018) increase in ICU admissions 5 days later. Under stratification, positive associations were found among patients aged 0-20 and 60+, patients living in the Midwest Census Region, patients admitted in the years 2013-2015, and non-Black patients, though other results were mixed. Following a simulated severe 7-day 120 mu g/m(3) smoke event, our results predict ICU bed utilization peaking at 131% (95% CI: 43, 239; p < 10(-5)) over baseline. Our work suggests that hospitals may need to preposition vital critical care resources when severe smoke events are forecast. Plain Language Summary Wildfire smoke negatively affects people's health. Heavy smoke has been linked to higher rates of hospital admissions, emergency room, admissions, and death. However, we do not know the impact of smoke on Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admissions or on limited hospital resources like ICU beds. To fill this knowledge gap, we linked hospital ICU admissions to smoke levels near those hospitals. We also predicted how many ICU admissions would occur during a simulated severe week-long smoke event and how many ICU beds would be needed to care for the patients. We found that the link between smoke and ICU admissions was relatively modest, but a severe smoke event could more than double the number of ICU beds needed.
Wildfires are natural ecological processes that generate high levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) that are dispersed into the atmosphere. PM2.5 could be a potential health problem due to its size. Having adequate numerical models to predict the spatial and temporal distribution of PM2.5 helps to mitigate the impact on human health. The compositional data approach is widely used in the environmental sciences and concentration analyses (parts of a whole). This numerical approach in the modelling process avoids one common statistical problem: the spurious correlation. PM2.5 is a part of the atmospheric composition. In this way, this study developed an hourly spatio-temporal PM2.5 model based on the dynamic linear modelling framework (DLM) with a compositional approach. The results of the model are extended using a Gaussian-Mattern field. The modelling of PM2.5 using a compositional approach presented adequate quality model indices (NSE = 0.82, RMSE = 0.23, and a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.91); however, the correlation range showed a slightly lower value than the conventional/traditional approach. The proposed method could be used in spatial prediction in places without monitoring stations.
We developed daily maps of surface fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) for the western United States. We used geographically weighted regression fit to air quality station observations with Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) aerosol optical depth (AOD) data, and meteorological data to produce daily 1-kilometer resolution PM(2.5) concentration estimates from 2003-2020. To account for impacts of stagnant air and inversions, we included estimates of inversion strength based on meteorological conditions, and inversion potential based on human activities and local topography. Model accuracy based on cross-validation was R(2) = 0.66. AOD data improve the model in summer and fall during periods of high wildfire activity while the stagnation terms capture the spatial and temporal dynamics of PM(2.5) in mountain valleys, particularly during winter. These data can be used to explore exposure and health outcome impacts of PM(2.5) across spatiotemporal domains particularly in the intermountain western United States where measurements from monitoring station data are sparse. Furthermore, these data may facilitate analyses of inversion impacts and local topography on exposure and health outcome studies.
We estimated cardiopulmonary morbidity and mortality associated with wildfire smoke (WFS) fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the Front Range of Colorado from 2010 to 2015. To estimate WFS PM2.5, we developed a daily kriged PM2.5 surface at a 15 x 15 km resolution based on the Environmental Protection Agency Air Quality System monitors for the western United States; we subtracted out local seasonal-average PM2.5 of nonsmoky days, identified using satellite-based smoke plume estimates, from the local daily estimated PM2.5 if smoke was identified by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Hazard Mapping System. We implemented time-stratified case-crossover analyses to estimate the effect of a 10 mu g/m(3) increase in WFS PM2.5 with cardiopulmonary hospitalizations and deaths using single and distributed lag models for lags 0-5 and distinct annual impacts based on local and long-range smoke during 2012, and long-range transport of smoke in 2015. A 10 mu g/m(3) increase in WFS was associated with all respiratory, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease hospitalizations for lag day 3 and hospitalizations for ischemic heart disease at lag days 2 and 3. Cardiac arrest deaths were associated with WFS PM2.5 at lag day 0. For 2012 local wildfires, asthma hospitalizations had an inverse association with WFS PM2.5 (OR: 0.716, 95% CI: 0.517-0.993), but a positive association with WFS PM2.5 during the 2015 long-range transport event (OR: 1.455, 95% CI: 1.093-1.939). Cardiovascular mortality was associated with the 2012 long-range transport event (OR: 1.478, 95% CI: 1.124-1.944).
Wildfire activity in the western United States (US) has been increasing, a trend that has been correlated with changing patterns of temperature and precipitation associated with climate change. Health effects associated with exposure to wildfire smoke and fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) include short- and long-term premature mortality, hospital admissions, emergency department visits, and other respiratory and cardiovascular incidents. We estimate PM(2.5) exposure and health impacts for the entire continental US from current and future western US wildfire activity projected for a range of future climate scenarios through the 21st century. We use a simulation approach to estimate wildfire activity, area burned, fine particulate emissions, air quality concentrations, health effects, and economic valuation of health effects, using established and novel methodologies. We find that climatic factors increase wildfire pollutant emissions by an average of 0.40% per year over the 2006-2100 period under Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 (lower emissions scenarios) and 0.71% per year for RCP8.5. As a consequence, spatially weighted wildfire PM(2.5) concentrations more than double for some climate model projections by the end of the 21st century. PM(2.5) exposure changes, combined with population projections, result in a wildfire PM2.5-related premature mortality excess burden in the 2090 RCP8.5 scenario that is roughly 3.5 times larger than in the baseline period. The combined effect of increased wildfire activity, population growth, and increase in the valuation of avoided risk of premature mortality over time results in a large increase in total economic impact of wildfire-related PM(2.5) mortality and morbidity in the continental US, from roughly $7 billion per year in the baseline period to roughly $36 billion per year in 2090 for RCP4.5, and $43 billion per year in RCP8.5. The climate effect alone accounts for a roughly 60% increase in wildfire PM2.5-related premature mortality in the RCP8.5 scenario, relative to baseline conditions.
This paper presents findings from an online survey that explored public experiences of wildfire smoke, public health advisory information, risk perceptions, and protective actions in response to wildfire smoke in western Canada. Most respondents had wildfire smoke experiences lasting several days with decreased visibility, and many had difficulty breathing and changes to their health. While a majority of respondents were aware of the Air Quality Health Index and how to respond on a high risk day, some did not. Most respondents perceived the risk from wildfire smoke during their most recent experience to be extreme, severe, or moderate, with only 20% perceiving low risk from wildfire smoke. Wildfire smoke experiences affected risk perceptions, and female respondents perceived the risk from wildfire smoke to be higher in comparison to male respondents. Most respondents took protective actions during their most recent exposure to wildfire smoke, with the most popular measures including keeping windows and doors shut, and limiting time spent outdoors. Perceptions of wildfire smoke risks, experiencing health impacts from wildfire smoke, sex and highest level of education, and firefighting experience influenced protective actions. Recommendations to improve public health during wildfire smoke events and future research are included.
First Nation reserves in Canada are at high risk from wildfires, with many evacuated every year. There is a need to understand how First Nations are affected by wildfire evacuations to identify ways to reduce negative impacts. The First Nations Wildfire Evacuation Partnership has conducted research to explore evacuation experiences of seven First Nations in three Canadian provinces. This paper presents findings from research across the seven First Nations. Results show that few participating First Nations had an up to date emergency plan tailored to their community, which contributed to challenges during the evacuation. Family separation, insufficient information, and worries about losing their house caused considerable distress for evacuees. Wildfire smoke health impacts occurred, particularly for those who had pre-existing health conditions. Social and financial support, if available, helped evacuees during and after their evacuation. Several years after First Nations return home after a wildfire evacuation, lingering distress continues and some First Nations were still experiencing fiscal challenges as a result of the evacuation. Recommendations for reducing negative impacts of wildfire evacuations on First Nations people are discussed.
BACKGROUND: Climate-related events, including wildfires, which adversely affect human health, are gaining the growing attention of public-health officials and researchers. Israel has experienced several disastrous fires, including the wave of fires in November 2016 that led to the evacuation of 75,000 people. The fires lasted six days (22-27 November) with no loss of life or significant immediate health impacts. The objective of this study is to explore the long-term hospitalization dynamics in a population exposed to this large-scale fire, including the effects of underlying morbidity and socio-economic status (SES). METHODS: This is a retrospective crossover study, conducted in 2020, analyzing the electronic medical records of residents from areas exposed to a wildfire in northern Israel. The study spans from one year before exposure to two years after it (22 November 2015-27 November 2018). The hospitalization days during the study period were analyzed using the Poisson regression model. The rate of hospitalization days along with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were plotted. RESULTS: The study included 106,595 participants. The median age was 37 (IQR = 17-56), with a mean socio-economic ranking of 6.47 out of 10 (SD = 2.01). Analysis revealed that people with underlying morbidity were at greater risk of experiencing long-term effects following fires, which was manifested in higher hospitalization rates that remained elevated for two years post-exposure. This was also evident among individuals of low socio-economic status without these background illnesses. CONCLUSIONS: Healthcare services should prepare for increased hospitalization rates during the two years following wildfires for populations with underlying morbidity and those of low socio-economic status. Implementing preventive-medicine approaches may increase the resiliency of communities in the face of extreme climate-related events and prevent future health burdens. Additional research should focus on the specific mechanisms underpinning the long-term effects of wildfire exposure.
Wildfires have increased in the last years and, when caused by intentional illegal burnings, are frequently run out of control. Wildfire has been pointed out as an important source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and trace elements (TEs) – such as, As, Ni, and Pb – to environmental compartments, and thus may pose a risk to human health and to the ecosystem. In 2020, the Brazilian biome, Pantanal, faced the largest losses by wildfires in the last 22 years. Ashes from the topsoil layer in Pantanal were collected after these wildfires at 20 sites divided into the sediment, forest, PF, PS, and degraded sites. Toxicity and associated risks for human health were also evaluated. The areas highly impacted by wildfires and by artisanal gold mining activities showed higher concentrations for TEs and PAHs than the protected areas. Pb varied from 8 ± 4 to 224 ± 81 mg kg(-1), and total PAH concentration ranged between 880 ± 314 and 1350 ± 70 ng g(-1), at sites impacted by anthropogenic activities. Moreover, health risk assessments for TE and PAH indicated a potentially great risk for children and adults, via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal pathway. The carcinogenic risks exceeded reference values, for both TE and PAH, suggesting harmful conditions, especially for vulnerable groups, such as children and the elderly. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11869-022-01248-2.
BACKGROUND: Brazil has faced two simultaneous problems related to respiratory health: forest fires and the high mortality rate due to COVID-19 pandemics. The Amazon rain forest is one of the Brazilian biomes that suffers the most with fires caused by droughts and illegal deforestation. These fires can bring respiratory diseases associated with air pollution, and the State of Par?í in Brazil is the most affected. COVID-19 pandemics associated with air pollution can potentially increase hospitalizations and deaths related to respiratory diseases. Here, we aimed to evaluate the association of fire occurrences with the COVID-19 mortality rates and general respiratory diseases hospitalizations in the State of Para, Brazil. METHODS: We employed machine learning technique for clustering k-means accompanied with the elbow method used to identify the ideal quantity of clusters for the k-means algorithm, clustering 10 groups of cities in the State of Para where we selected the clusters with the highest and lowest fires occurrence from the 2015 to 2019. Next, an Auto-regressive Integrated Moving Average Exogenous (ARIMAX) model was proposed to study the serial correlation of respiratory diseases hospitalizations and their associations with fire occurrences. Regarding the COVID-19 analysis, we computed the mortality risk and its confidence level considering the quarterly incidence rate ratio in clusters with high and low exposure to fires. FINDINGS: Using the k-means algorithm we identified two clusters with similar DHI (Development Human Index) and GDP (Gross Domestic Product) from a group of ten clusters that divided the State of Para but with diverse behavior considering the hospitalizations and forest fires in the Amazon biome. From the auto-regressive and moving average model (ARIMAX), it was possible to show that besides the serial correlation, the fires occurrences contribute to the respiratory diseases increase, with an observed lag of six months after the fires for the case with high exposure to fires. A highlight that deserves attention concerns the relationship between fire occurrences and deaths. Historically, the risk of mortality by respiratory diseases is higher (about the double) in regions and periods with high exposure to fires than the ones with low exposure to fires. The same pattern remains in the period of the COVID-19 pandemic, where the risk of mortality for COVID-19 was 80% higher in the region and period with high exposure to fires. Regarding the SARS-COV-2 analysis, the risk of mortality related to COVID-19 is higher in the period with high exposure to fires than in the period with low exposure to fires. Another highlight concerns the relationship between fire occurrences and COVID-19 deaths. The results show that regions with high fire occurrences are associated with more cases of COVID deaths. INTERPRETATION: The decision-make process is a critical problem mainly when it involves environmental and health control policies. Environmental policies are often more cost-effective as health measures than the use of public health services. This highlight the importance of data analyses to support the decision making and to identify population in need of better infrastructure due to historical environmental factors and the knowledge of associated health risk. The results suggest that The fires occurrences contribute to the increase of the respiratory diseases hospitalization. The mortality rate related to COVID-19 was higher for the period with high exposure to fires than the period with low exposure to fires. The regions with high fire occurrences is associated with more COVID-19 deaths, mainly in the months with high number of fires. FUNDING: No additional funding source was required for this study.
2015 saw the strongest El Nino event in the historical record, resulting in extreme drought conditions in Brazil. As drought conditions may also lead to greater fire danger, this study uses the 2015 fire in Brazil as a case study to examine whether and to what extent human-induced climate change has contributed to the fire weather conditions in the Cerrado and the southern Amazonia transitional forests known as the Arc of deforestation. Our results show that anthropogenic climate change is indeed a driver of meteorological conditions conducive to strong fire weather in these two regions, measured by fire weather index (FWI), especially on shorter timescales of daily and weekly. The anthropogenic climate change signal of FWI on short timescales corresponds to a similar order of increase in the FWI sub-indices (initial spread index and fine fuel moisture code) that can rapidly change due to the influence of the instantaneous weather conditions. For both regions the changes in fire weather in response to anthropogenic climate change are dominated by the combination of temperature and relative humidity responses. High FWI is more likely to occur under El Nino conditions, less likely under La Nina conditions, although the impacts of El Nino vs La Nina conditions are not symmetric when compared with El Nino Southern Oscillation neutral states. To summarize, both human-induced climate change and the presence of El Nino increased the likelihood of occurrence for the strong fire weather condition in 2015. Our results suggest that local and regional adaptation measures, such as improved drought monitoring and warning systems, could help with effective planning of fire prevention, firefighting actions, and disaster preparedness.
We quantified the impacts of wildfire-related PM2.5 on 2 million hospital admissions records due to cardiorespiratory diseases in Brazil between 2008 and 2018. The national analysis shows that wildfire waves are associated with an increase of 23% (95%CI: 12%-33%) in respiratory hospital admissions and an increase of 21% (95%CI: 8%-35%) in circulatory hospital admissions. In the North (where most of the Amazon region is located), we estimate an increase of 38% (95%CI: 30%-47%) in respiratory hospital admissions and 27% (95%CI: 15%-39%) in circulatory hospital admissions. Here we report epidemiological evidence that air pollution emitted by wildfires is significantly associated with a higher risk of cardiorespiratory hospital admissions. Brazil is a wildfire-prone region, and few studies have investigated the health impacts of wildfire exposure. Here, the authors show that wildfire waves are associated with an increase of 23% in respiratory hospital admissions and an increase of 21% in circulatory hospital admissions in Brazil.
Background Birth defects are a major cause of poor health outcomes during both childhood and adulthood. A growing body of evidence demonstrated associations between air pollution exposure during pregnancy and birth defects. To date, there is no study looking at birth defects and exposure to wildfire-related air pollution, which is suggested as a type of air pollution source with high toxicity for reproductive health. Objective Our study addresses this gap by examining the association between birth defects and wildfire smoke exposure in Brazil between 2001 and 2018. Based on known differences of impacts of wildfires across different regions of Brazil, we hypothesized differences in risks of birth defects for different regions. Methods We used a logistic regression model to estimate the odds ratios (ORs) for individual birth defects (12 categories) associated with wildfire exposure during each trimester of pregnancy. Results Among the 16,825,497 birth records in our study population, there were a total of 7595 infants born in Brazil between 2001 and 2018 with birth defects in any of the selected categories. After adjusting for several confounders in the primary analysis, we found statistically significant OR for three birth defects, including cleft lip/cleft palate [OR: 1.007 (95% CI: 1.001; 1.013)] during the second trimester of exposure, congenital anomalies of the respiratory system [OR: 1.013 (95% CI: 1.002; 1.023)] in the second trimester of exposure, and congenital anomalies of the nervous system [OR: 1.002 (95% CI: 1.001; 1.003)] during the first trimester of exposure for the regions South, North, and Midwest, respectively. Significance Our results suggest that maternal exposure to wildfire smoke during pregnancy may increase the risk of an infant being born with some congenital anomaly. Considering that birth defects are associated with long-term disability, impacting families and the healthcare system (e.g., healthcare costs), our findings should be of great concern to the public health community. Impact statement Our study focused on the association between maternal exposure to wildfire smoke in Brazil during pregnancy and the risk of an infant being born with congenital anomalies, which presents serious public health and environmental challenges.
Air pollution from Amazon fires has adverse impacts on human health. The number of fires in the Amazon has increased in recent years, but whether this increase was driven by deforestation or climate has not been assessed. We analyzed relationships between fire, deforestation, and climate for the period 2003 to 2019 among selected states across the Brazilian Legal Amazon (BLA). A statistical model including deforestation, precipitation and temperature explained ∼80% of the variability in dry season fire count across states when totaled across the BLA, with positive relationships between fire count and deforestation. We estimate that the increase in deforestation since 2012 increased the dry season fire count in 2019 by 39%. Using a regional chemistry-climate model combined with exposure-response associations, we estimate this increase in fire resulted in 3,400 (95UI: 3,300-3,550) additional deaths in 2019 due to increased exposure to particulate air pollution. If deforestation in 2019 had increased to the maximum recorded during 2003-2019, the number of active fire counts would have increased by an additional factor of 2 resulting in 7,900 (95UI: 7,600-8,200) additional premature deaths. Our analysis demonstrates the strong benefits of reduced deforestation on air quality and public health across the Amazon.
BACKGROUND: In the context of climate change and deforestation, Brazil is facing more frequent and unprecedented wildfires. Wildfire-related PM(2·5) is associated with multiple adverse health outcomes; however, the magnitude of these associations in the Brazilian context is unclear. We aimed to estimate the association between daily exposure to wildfire-related PM(2·5) and cause-specific hospital admission and attributable health burden in the Brazilian population using a nationwide dataset from 2000 to 2015. METHODS: In this nationwide time-series analysis, data for daily all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory hospital admissions were collected through the Brazilian Unified Health System from 1814 municipalities in Brazil between Jan 1, 2000, and Dec 31, 2015. Daily concentrations of wildfire-related PM(2·5) were estimated using the 3D chemical transport model GEOS-Chem at a 2·0° latitude by 2·5° longitude resolution. A time-series analysis was fitted using quasi-Poisson regression to quantify municipality-specific effect estimates, which were then pooled at the regional and national levels using random-effects meta-analyses. Analyses were stratified by sex and ten age groups. The attributable fraction and attributable cases of hospital admissions due to wildfire-related PM(2·5) were also calculated. FINDINGS: At the national level, a 10 μg/m(3) increase in wildfire-related PM(2·5) was associated with a 1·65% (95% CI 1·51-1·80) increase in all-cause hospital admissions, a 5·09% (4·73-5·44) increase in respiratory hospital admissions, and a 1·10% (0·78-1·42) increase in cardiovascular hospital admissions, over 0-1 days after the exposure. The effect estimates for all-cause hospital admission did not vary by sex, but were particularly high in children aged 4 years or younger (4·88% [95% CI 4·47-5·28]), children aged 5-9 years (2·33% [1·77-2·90]), and people aged 80 years and older (3·70% [3·20-4·20]) compared with other age groups. We estimated that 0·53% (95% CI 0·48-0·58) of all-cause hospital admissions were attributable to wildfire-related PM(2·5), corresponding to 35 cases (95% CI 32-38) per 100 000 residents annually. The attributable rate was greatest for municipalities in the north, south, and central-west regions, and lowest in the northeast region. Results were consistent for all-cause and respiratory diseases across regions, but remained inconsistent for cardiovascular diseases. INTERPRETATION: Short-term exposure to wildfire-related PM(2·5) was associated with increased risks of all-cause, respiratory, and cardiovascular hospital admissions, particularly among children (0-9 years) and older people (≥80 years). Greater attention should be paid to reducing exposure to wildfire smoke, particularly for the most susceptible populations. FUNDING: Australian Research Council and Australian National Health and Medical Research Council.
One of the many consequences of climate change is an increase in the frequency, severity, and, thus, impact of wildfires across the globe. The destruction and loss of one’s home, belongings, and surrounding community, and the threat to personal safety and the safety of loved ones can have significant consequences on survivors’ mental health, which persist for years after. The objective of this scoping review was to identify primary studies examining the impact of wildfires on mental health and to summarize findings for PTSD, depression, anxiety, and substance use. Literature searches on Pubmed and Embase were conducted in February and April of 2021, respectively, with no date restrictions. A total of 254 studies were found in the two database searches, with 60 studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Three other studies were identified and included based on relevant in-text citations during data abstraction. The results show an increased rate of PTSD, depression, and generalized anxiety at several times of follow-up post-wildfire, from the subacute phase, to years after. An increased rate of mental health disorders post-wildfire has been found in both the adult and pediatric population, with a number of associated risk factors, the most significant being characteristics of the wildfire trauma itself. Several new terms have arisen in the literature secondary to an increased awareness and understanding of the impact of natural disasters on mental health, including ecological grief, solastalgia, and eco-anxiety. There are a number of patient factors and systemic changes that have been identified post-wildfire that can contribute to resilience and recovery.
Wildfires present a serious risk to humans as well as to the environment. Wildfires cause loss of lives, economic losses, expose people to personal as well as collective trauma, and compromise the mental health of survivors. Sleep disturbances are highly prevalent following a traumatic event; however, their prevalence is not well established amongst those confronted by natural disasters such as wildfires. The aim of this systematic review is to synthesise the empirical findings pertaining to wildfires and the prevalence of sleep disturbances in the general community affected by this natural disaster. We searched EBSCO, PsychINFO, Medline, SpringerLink, CINAHL Complete, EMBASE, PubMed, Scopus and Cochrane Library between January 2012 and March 2021. Five studies met the inclusion criteria. Findings from this systematic review suggest that sleep disturbances, assessed one to ten months following the fires, are highly prevalent in wildfire survivors, with insomnia (ranging between 63-72.5%) and nightmares (ranging between 33.3-46.5%), being the most prevalent sleep disturbances reported in this cohort. Results also highlight the significant associations between sleep disturbances and post-traumatic symptoms following the trauma of wildfires. There is a possible link between sleep disturbance prevalence, severity of, and proximity to fires.
OBJECTIVES: Due to accelerating wildland fire activity, there is mounting urgency to understand, prevent, and mitigate the occupational health impacts associated with wildland fire suppression. The objectives of this review of academic and grey literature were to: 1. Identify the impact of occupational exposure to wildland fires on physical, mental, and emotional health; and 2. Examine the characteristics and effectiveness of prevention, mitigation, or management strategies studied to reduce negative health outcomes associated with occupational exposure to wildland fire. METHODS: Following established scoping review methods, academic literature as well as government and industry reports were identified by searching seven academic databases and through a targeted grey literature search. 4679 articles were screened using pre-determined eligibility criteria. Data on study characteristics, health outcomes assessed, prevention or mitigation strategies studied, and main findings were extracted from each included document. The results of this scoping review are presented using descriptive tables and a narrative summary to organize key findings. RESULTS: The final sample was comprised of 100 articles: 76 research articles and 24 grey literature reports. Grey literature focused on acute injuries and fatalities. Health outcomes reported in academic studies focused on respiratory health (n = 14), mental health (n = 16), and inflammation and oxidative stress (n = 12). The identified studies evaluated short-term outcomes measuring changes across a single shift or wildland fire season. Most research was conducted with wildland firefighters and excluded personnel such as aviation crews, contract crews, and incident management teams. Five articles reported direct study of mitigation strategies, focusing on the potential usage of masks, advanced hygiene protocols to reduce exposure, fluid intake to manage hydration and core temperature, and glutamine supplementation to reduce fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: While broad in scope, the evidence base linking wildland fire exposure to any one health outcome is limited. The lack of long-term evidence on changes in health status or morbidity is a clear evidence gap and there is a need to prioritize research on the mental and physical health impact of occupational exposure to wildland fire.
Wildfires are becoming more frequent and increasing in intensity, which results in significant threats to human life and property. Road networks play an important role in emergency activities. It is reasonable that robust road connectivity will give evacuees and emergency services the ability to respond more effectively, which may lead to a reduction in casualties. This study ex-plores a novel graph-based connectivity index for road networks that considers different analysis scales to measure the impact on global wildfire fatality events in past decades. We find a sig-nificant and systematic relationship between fatalities and a calibrated connectivity index across different wildfire events. This parsimonious and simple graph theoretic measure can provide planners a useful metric to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience among areas that are prone to wildfires.
INTRODUCTION: The Anthropocene is used to describe the most recent period where major disruptions in Earth’s system processes have resulted from humanity’s increasing ecological footprint. Climate change affects the social and environmental determinants of good health, such as clean air, stable ecosystems, safe drinking water, and sufficient and safe food, and they seem to be closely related to air pollution. OBJECTIVES: This article aims to review the evidence of how extreme weather events and indoor and outdoor pollution are associated with insufficient lung growth in early life, changes in lung function, and the increase in respiratory infections, favoring the development of allergic respiratory diseases. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Non-systematic review of English, Spanish, and Portuguese articles published in the last ten years in databases such as PubMed, EMBASE, and SciELO. The terms used were air pollution OR climate changes OR smoke, AND health OR allergic disease. RESULTS: Climate change and air pollution are the leading contributors to health emergencies around the world. On a global scale, those most at risk of adverse health effects associated with climate change include children, the elderly, and other vulnerable groups. Climate change and air pollution have adverse impacts on respiratory allergies, and the mechanisms are complex and interactive. CONCLUSION: Health professionals must receive information and education necessary to establish effective mitigation and adaptation strategies to minimize the effects of climate changes on the respiratory health of their patients.
Evacuation of residents during wildfire is a highly time-sensitive process. Available time may be limited. Previous research on other types of incident demonstrate that individuals delay their evacuation by first undertaking actions in response to the threat. However, currently there is little evidence of what actions individuals undertake (‘behavioural itineraries’), how many, which are prioritised, and how much time is committed to them in a wildfire. Additionally, where some understanding exists concerning human behaviour in wildfire evacuations, data has mostly been acquired from Australia; European regions, which are increasingly threatened by wildfires, lack attention. This study presents the first cross-cultural investigation of its kind: survey data (N = 293) from the South of France and Australia were compared. Participants with actual experience of wildfires and those inexperienced yet residing in at-risk areas answered questions about what they did or would hypothetically do, respectively, and for how long, prior to commencing evacuation. Results revealed that, across the two regions, the discrete actions comprising behavioural itineraries were similar overall, albeit their priority sometimes differed. However, when analysed by category, the prioritisation of actions was uniform across samples. Of significance is the finding that regional differences were also observed in relation to: mean number of actions, time committed to actions and the influence of socio-demographic factors, indicating geographical and cultural determinants. Implications for future research, evacuation modelling and wildfire management, education and training are discussed.
In this paper we propose a method for sparse dynamic allocation of resources to bound the risk of spreading processes, such as epidemics and wildfires, using convex optimization and dynamic programming techniques. Here, risk is defined as the risk of an undetected outbreak, i.e. the product of the probability of an outbreak occurring and the future impact of that outbreak, and we can allocate budgeted resources each time step to bound and minimize the risk. Our method in particular provides sparsity of resources, which is important due to the large network structures involved with spreading processes and has advantages when resources can not be distributed widely.
Background: Maternal wildfire exposure (e.g., smoke, stress) has been associated with poor birth outcomes with effects potentially mediated through air pollution and psychosocial stress. Despite the recent hike in the intensity and frequency of wildfires in some regions of the world, a critical appraisal of the evidence on the association between maternal wildfire exposure and adverse birth outcomes has not yet been undertaken. We conducted a systematic review that evaluated the scientific evidence on the association between wildfire exposure during pregnancy and the risk of adverse birth outcomes. Methods: Comprehensive searches in nine bibliographic databases were conducted from database inception up to June 2020. Observational epidemiological studies that evaluated associations between exposure to wildfire during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes were eligible for inclusion. Studies were assessed using the National Toxicology Program’s Office of Health Assessment and Translation (NTP OHAT) risk of bias tool and certainty of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) framework. Screening of retrieved articles, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment were performed by two independent reviewers. Study results were synthesized descriptively. Results: Eight epidemiological studies conducted in four countries and involving 1,702,252 births were included in the review. The exposure to wildfire during pregnancy was assessed in individual studies by measurement of PM2.5 (n = 2), PM10 (n = 1), Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) aerosol index (n = 1), heat spots (n = 1), and by proximity of maternal residence to wildfire-affected areas (n = 3). There is some evidence indicating that maternal wildfire exposure associates with birth weight reduction (n = 7) and preterm birth (n = 4), particularly when exposure to wildfire smoke occurred in late pregnancy. The association between wildfire exposure and small for gestational age (n = 2) and infant mortality (n = 1) was inconclusive. Conclusion: Current evidence suggests that maternal exposure to wildfire during late pregnancy is linked to reduced birth weight and preterm birth. Well-designed comprehensive studies are needed to better understand the perinatal effects of wildfires.
Association between short-term exposure to ambient air pollution and respiratory health is well documented. At the same time, it is widely known that extreme weather events intrinsically exacerbate air pollution impact. Particularly, hot weather and extreme temperatures during heat waves (HW) significantly affect human health, increasing risks of respiratory mortality and morbidity. Concurrently, a synergistic effect of air pollution and high temperatures can be combined with weather–air pollution interaction during wildfires. The purpose of the current review is to summarize literature on interplay of hot weather, air pollution, and respiratory health consequences worldwide, with the ultimate goal of identifying the most dangerous pollution agents and vulnerable population groups. A literature search was conducted using electronic databases Web of Science, Pubmed, Science Direct, and Scopus, focusing only on peer-reviewed Researchs published in English from 2000 to 2021. The main findings demonstrate that the increased level of PM10 and O3 results in significantly higher rates of respiratory and cardiopulmonary mortality. Increments in PM2.5 and PM10, O3, CO, and NO2 concentrations during high temperature episodes are dramatically associated with higher admissions to hospital in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, daily hospital emergency transports for asthma, acute and chronic bronchitis, and premature mortality caused by respiratory disease. Excessive respiratory health risk is more pronounced in elderly cohorts and small children. Both heat waves and outdoor air pollution are synergistically linked and are expected to be more serious in the future due to greater climate instability, being a crucial threat to global public health that requires the responsible involvement of researchers at all levels. Sustainable urban planning and smart city design could significantly reduce both urban heat islands effect and air pollution.
INTRODUCTION: Exposure to natural hazards such as fire, drought, floods, and earthquakes can have negative impacts on physical and mental health and wellbeing. The social and structural factors contributing to individual and community vulnerability also influence responses to disaster and the resulting consequences on health and wellbeing. Experiencing disasters like bushfires amplifies the impacts of inequality, magnifying existing disparities and contributing to additional psychological burdens of grief, trauma and adaptive challenge. There is a need to understand how vulnerability can influence responses to disaster, and to identify factors that develop and foster resilience in the context of increasing disasters and vulnerability. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This protocol will describe the methodology of two scoping reviews: the first will describe the mental health outcomes of vulnerable populations after droughts and bushfires; the second will identify and describe strategies that promote community resilience in vulnerable populations in the context of a disaster. A thorough search will be conducted in relevant databases. Studies will be limited to English language. The reviews will be reported using the 22-item checklist for the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. Methodological quality of the included papers will be assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute’s critical appraisal tools. RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS: The two scoping reviews described in this protocol will have broad relevance in the context of increasing and intensifying disasters, and will especially consider the compounded impact of disaster on vulnerable communities. Findings will contribute directly to the design and implementation of solutions to improve post-disaster health and wellbeing and community resilience.
In recent years, wildland fires have occurred more frequently and with increased intensity in many fire-prone areas. In addition to the direct life and economic losses attributable to wildfires, the emitted smoke is a major contributor to ambient air pollution, leading to significant public health impacts. Wildfire smoke is a complex mixture of particulate matter (PM), gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds. PM from wildfire smoke has a high content of elemental carbon and organic carbon, with lesser amounts of metal compounds. Epidemiological studies have consistently found an association between exposure to wildfire smoke (typically monitored as the PM concentration) and increased respiratory morbidity and mortality. However, previous reviews of the health effects of wildfire smoke exposure have not established a conclusive link between wildfire smoke exposure and adverse cardiovascular effects. In this review, we systematically evaluate published epidemiological observations, controlled clinical exposure studies, and toxicological studies focusing on evidence of wildfire smoke exposure and cardiovascular effects, and identify knowledge gaps. Improving exposure assessment and identifying sensitive cardiovascular endpoints will serve to better understand the association between exposure to wildfire smoke and cardiovascular effects and the mechanisms involved. Similarly, filling the knowledge gaps identified in this review will better define adverse cardiovascular health effects of exposure to wildfire smoke, thus informing risk assessments and potentially leading to the development of targeted interventional strategies to mitigate the health impacts of wildfire smoke.
Due to climate change, bushfires are becoming a more frequent and more severe phenomenon which contributes to poor health effects associated with air pollution. In pregnancy, environmental exposures can have lifelong consequences for the fetus, but little is known about these consequences in the context of bushfire smoke exposure. In this review we summarise the current knowledge in this area, and propose a potential mechanism linking bushfire smoke exposure in utero to poor perinatal and respiratory outcomes in the offspring. Bushfire smoke exposure is associated with poor pregnancy outcomes including reduced birth weight and an increased risk of prematurity. Some publications have outlined the adverse health effects on young children, particularly in relation to emergency department presentations and hospital admissions for respiratory problems, but there are no studies in children who were exposed to bushfire smoke in utero. Prenatal stress is likely to occur as a result of catastrophic bushfire events, and stress is known to be associated with poor perinatal and respiratory outcomes. Changes to DNA methylation are potential epigenetic mechanisms linking both smoke particulate exposure and prenatal stress to poor childhood respiratory health outcomes. More research is needed in large pregnancy cohorts exposed to bushfire events to explore this further, and to design appropriate mitigation interventions, in this area of global public health importance.
BACKGROUND: Fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) produced by landscape fires is thought to be more toxic than that from non-fire sources. However, the effects of “fire-sourced” PM(2.5) on acute respiratory infection (ARI) are unknown. METHODS: We combined Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data from 48 countries with gridded global estimates of PM(2.5) concentrations from 2003 to 2014. The proportions of fire-sourced PM(2.5) were assessed by a chemical transport model using a variety of PM(2.5) source data. We tested for associations between ARI and short-term exposure to fire- and “non-fire-sourced” PM(2.5) using a bidirectional case-crossover analysis. The robustness and homogeneity of the associations were examined by sensitivity analyses. We also established a nonlinear exposure-response relationship between fire- and non-fire-sourced PM(2.5) and ARI using a two-dimensional spline function. RESULTS: The study included 36,432 children under 5 years who reported ARI symptoms. Each 1 µg/m(3) increment of fire-sourced PM(2.5) was associated with a 3.2 % (95 % confidence interval [CI] 0.2, 6.2) increment in the risk of ARI. This effect was comparable to that of each ∼5 µg/m(3) increment in PM(2.5) from non-fire sources (3.1 %; 95 % CI 2.4, 3.7). The association between ARI and total PM(2.5) concentration was significantly mediated by the proportion of fire-sourced particles. Nonlinear analysis showed that the risk of ARI was increased by both fire- and non-fire-sourced PM(2.5), but especially by the former. CONCLUSIONS: PM(2.5) produced by landscape fire was more strongly associated to ARI among children under 5 years than that from non-fire sources.
In Portugal, forest fires are responsible for disasters that tend to be repeated annually, leading to dramatic consequences, such as those that have occurred in 2017, with the destruction of hundreds of houses and the deaths of dozens of people. Firefighters who are exposed to these potentially traumatic events are considered a high-risk group for the development of stress-related disorders. The aim of this study was to monitor the progress of two firefighters with symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) treated through dynamic psychotherapy (DP) and to assess the feasibility of implementing this intervention within fire departments. A female firefighter and a male firefighter, with similar sociodemographic characteristics and PTSD symptom severity, were selected to verify the treatment applicability for both genders. The symptomatology changes were assessed through a set of instruments (PHQ-15, PCL-5, BSI, DASS, and CALPAS-P) applied every three months over 15 months (including pre-treatment, treatment period, and post-treatment). DP seemed to be an effective treatment for PTSD symptoms, with patients showing a state of increasing improvement even after the end of treatment. The acceptability to firefighters, the treatment adherence, the therapeutic alliance, and the reduction in PTSD symptoms suggest feasibility for implementing this intervention inside the Portuguese fire departments.
Forest fires burn an average of about 440 000 ha each year in southern Europe. These fires cause numerous casualties and deaths and destroy houses and other infrastructure. In order to elaborate on suitable firefighting strategies, complex interactions between human and environmental factors must be taken into account. In this study, we investigated the spatiotemporal evolution in the burned area over a 50-year period (1970-2019) and its interactions with topography (slope aspect and inclination) and vegetation type in southeastern France by exploiting the geographic information system (GIS) databases. Data were analyzed for two 25-year periods (1970-1994 and 1995-2019), since a new fire suppression policy was put into place after 1994, which focused on rapid extinction of fires in their early phase. In the last 25 years, the burned area decreased sharply, and the geographic distribution of fires also changed, especially in regions where large fires occur (Var administrative division). Elsewhere, even though forest fires remain frequent, the total extent of the burned area decreased substantially. Fire hotspots appear closer to built-up areas in the west, are randomly distributed in the east, and they almost completely disappear in the central region of the study area where there is a history of large fires. Slope orientation presents an increasingly important role in the second period; south-facing slopes are preferred the most by fire, and north-facing slopes are preferentially avoided. Even though the slope inclination is less affected by the new firefighting strategy, low slope inclinations are even more avoided after 1994. The greatest proportion of the burned area is strongly associated with the location of sclerophyllous vegetation clusters which exhibit highly fire prone and expand in area over time. Natural grasslands are also preferred by fire, while broadleaved, coniferous, and mixed forest are increasingly avoided by fire.
This study investigated two high-impact wildland fire events that took place on 23 July 2018 in Attica Region, Central Greece during extreme prevailing weather conditions. The tragic aftermath was 102 life losses in MATI fire event, the largest number of deaths from a fire event in history of the country. The synoptic analysis revealed the presence of a positively tilted trough over the Central Mediterranean and Balkans, propagating eastwards and interacting with the subtropical jet, resulting in a strong westerly flow over Greece. Several surface stations in the wider area recorded wind gusts exceeding 20 m s(-1) between 12:00 and 17:30 UTC. The online coupled atmosphere-fire model WRF-SFIRE was utilized in order to simulate these extreme fire events and to investigate the role of the complex terrain to the mean flow and fire behavior. The numerical simulations revealed the presence of induced orographic waves, paths of high winds on the lee-slopes, transient resemblance of a hydraulic jump downstream of Penteli Mt. (MATI), while indicated a downward transport of energy and momentum during the maximum wind speed occurrences. The turbulent and dynamically unstable conditions on the lee-slopes of Gerania Mts. (KINETA) and Penteli Mt. contributed to the flow kinetic energy. Quite different influences of topography in each fire event were found, where the isolated Gerania Mts. contributed to warmer, drier and windier conditions leeward, while Penteli Mt. had a lesser impact on atmospheric variables downstream.
The summer of 2017 in the Calabria Region (South Italy) was an exceptional wildfire season with the largest area burned by wildfires in the last 11 years (2008-2019). The equivalent black carbon (EBC) and carbon monoxide (CO) measurements, recorded at the high-altitude Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Monte Curcio (MCU) regional station, were analyzed to establish the wildfires’ impact on air quality, human health, and the ecosystem. A method was applied to identify the possible wildfires that influenced the air quality based on the integration of fire data (both satellite and ground-based) and the high-resolution WRF-HYSPLIT trajectories. The satellite-based fires applied to WRF-HYSPLIT with 10 km of spatial resolution allowed us to establish that for 52.5% of total cases, wildfires were located outside the Calabria Region, and they were influenced by long-range transport. Nonetheless, the impact on human health, qualitatively evaluated in terms of passively smoked cigarettes (PSC) corresponding to the EBC, was greater when wildfires were local. Indeed, for wildfires located mainly in Calabria, the equivalent PSC ranged from 2.75 to 11.08. This maximum PSC value was close to the daily number of smoked cigarettes in Calabria (approximately 12.4). Even if this analogy does not imply a proportional effect between the estimated number of cigarettes smoked and the effective wildfire EBC exposure, this result suggests that wildfire emissions may have negative effects on people’s health. Moreover, a focus on the Calabria Region was conducted using high-resolution ground-based GPS and higher resolution WRF-HYSPLIT back-trajectories (2 km) to measure wildfires. The validity of the methodology was confirmed by the EBC and CO positive correlation with the ratio between the identified ground-based burned areas and the distance from the sampling station. Moreover, the impact on the ecosystem was studied by analyzing the land vegetation loss due to the wildfires that contributed to air quality reduction at the MCU station. A total of more than 1679 ha of vegetation burned, the main losses comprising forests and shrubland. (C) 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Climate change has increased the prevalence of wildfires, resulting in longer fire seasons and larger geographic area burned. The aim of this work was to assess the air pollution and health risk to the population caused during exposure to smoke in fire season. The study design included: an analysis of long-term air pollution to determine background levels; an analysis of short-term (<24 h) and subchronic (10-14 days) concentrations during wildfires; and an assessment of the health risk in the industrial center of the Baikal region (Russia). In Irkutsk, at a distance of 2000 km from the fire focal points, the maximum short-term concentrations of pollution were noted during the smoke period, when the average CO level increased 2.4 times, and PM1 increased 1.4 times relative to the background levels in August 2021. In Bratsk, located near the fires, the increases in short-term concentrations were: CO-21.0; SO2-13.0; formaldehyde-12.0; TPM-4.4 times. The hazard indices of respiratory and coronary diseases in the burning period exceeded the acceptable level. Acute reactions to smoke can be expected in 30% of the exposed population near fires and 11% in remote areas (Bratsk). The results obtained from the remote sensing of atmospheric smoke can be used to urgently resolve the issue of organizing medical assistance or evacuating the population groups most sensitive to the effects of smoke in fire season.
Featured Application This review contribute to understand the mechanisms underlying the observed rockfall activity during and after a wildfire, to advance in the solutions and methods to address the study of the problem, and to assess the hazard during and after wildfire, and its impact on not only transportation infrastructure and urban areas, but also the population. The results will help the decision makers and emergencies authorities to evaluate the exposure of elements at risk, to define actions to reduce their vulnerability and to identify measures to mitigate damages and social impact. Understanding processes and conditions that lead to rockfalls during and after a wildfire in different geological contexts is crucial since this phenomenon is one of the major hazards in mountainous regions across Europe. Spain is one of the European countries with the highest rate of wildfires, and rockfalls cause high economic and social impact, with many fatalities every year. The increase of rockfalls during and after wildfires is connected with the merging of different factors, not only in the detached area but also in the propagation and potentially affected area. When wildfire occurred, many actions take place: changes in the mechanical conditions of the rocks, the loss of protective capacity from vegetation, the effect induced by firefighting activities and/or the impact by the high temperatures in the adopted protective measures. After the wildfire, there is an increase in frequency and intensity of rockfalls in the burned area, causing a major impact of rockfalls on not only road networks and built-up areas but also people living. Additionally, the removal of vegetation by wildfires causes an increase in the risk perception, related not only to detached blocks but also to the general appearance of the rock mass. In this review, the main factors that influence the occurrence of rockfalls after a wildfire are analyzed, and three actual case studies in Spain are presented to support the variety of conclusions obtained.
Wildland fires release substantial amounts of hazardous contaminants, contributing to a decline in air quality and leading to serious health risks. Thus, this study aimed to understand the contributions of the 2017 extreme wildland fires in Portugal on children health, compared to 2016 (with burned area, in accordance with the average of the previous 15 years). The impact of long-term exposure to PM(10) and NO(2) concentrations, associated with wildland fires, on postneonatal mortality, bronchitis prevalence, and bronchitis symptoms in asthmatic children was estimated, as well as the associated costs. The excess health burden in children attributable to exposure to PM(10) and NO(2), was calculated based on WHO HRAPIE relative risks. Fire emissions were obtained from the Fire INventory from NCAR (FINN). The results obtained indicate that the smoke from wildfires negatively impacts children’s lung function (PM(10) exposure: increase of 320 and 648 cases of bronchitis in 2016 and 2017; NO(2) exposure: 24 and 40 cases of bronchitis symptoms in asthmatic children in 2016 and 2017) and postneonatal mortality (PM(10) exposure: 0.2 and 0.4 deaths in 2016 and 2017). Associated costs were increased in 2017 by around 1 million € for all the evaluated health endpoints, compared to 2016.
Wildland fires, increasing in recent decades in the Mediterranean region due to climate change, can contribute to PM levels and composition. This study aimed to investigate biological effects of PM(2.5) (Ø < 2.5 µm) and PM(10) (Ø < 10 µm) collected near a fire occurred in the North-West of Italy in 2017 and in three other areas (urban and rural areas). Organic extracts were assessed for mutagenicity using Ames test (TA98 and TA100 strains), cell viability (WST-1 and LDH assays) and genotoxicity (Comet assay) with human bronchial cells (BEAS-2B) and estrogenic activity using a gene reporter assay (MELN cells). In all sites, high levels of PM(10) and PM(2.5) were measured during the fire suggesting that near and distant sites were influenced by fire pollutants. The PM(10) and PM(2.5) extracts induced a significant mutagenicity in all sites and the mutagenic effect was increased with respect to historical data. All extracts induced a slight increase of the estrogenic activity but a possible antagonistic activity of PM samples collected near fire was observed. No cytotoxicity or DNA damage was detected. Results confirm that fires could be relevant for human health, since they can worsen the air quality increasing PM concentrations, mutagenic and estrogenic effects.
Uncontrolled wildfires have a substantial impact on the environment, the economy and local populations. According to the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS), between 2000 and 2013 wildfires burned up to 740 000 ha of land annually in the south of Europe, Portugal being the country with the highest percentage of burned area per square kilometre. However, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding the impacts of the wildfire-related pollutants on the mortality of the country’s population. All wildfires occurring during the fire season (June-July-AugustSeptember) from 2001 and 2016 were identified, and those with a burned area above 1000 ha (large fires) were considered for the study. During the studied period (2001-2016), more than 2 million ha of forest (929 766 ha from June to September alone) were burned in mainland Portugal. Although large fires only represent less than 1% of the number of total fires, in terms of burned area their contribution is 46% (53% from June to September). To assess the spatial impact of the wildfires, burned areas in each region of Portugal were correlated with PM10 concentrations measured at nearby background air quality monitoring stations. Associations between PM10 and all-cause (excluding injuries, poisoning and external causes) and cause-specific mortality (circulatory and respiratory) were studied for the affected populations using Poisson regression models. A significant positive correlation between burned area and PM10 was found in some regions of Portugal, as well as a significant association between PM10 concentrations and mortality, these being apparently related to large wildfires in some of the regions. The north, centre and inland of Portugal are the most affected areas. The high temperatures and long episodes of drought expected in the future will increase the probabilities of extreme events and therefore the occurrence of wildfires.
INTRODUCTION: Fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 μm (PM(2.5)) in the ambient air has been associated with increased blood pressure (BP) levels and new-onset hypertension. However, the association of BP with a sudden upsurge of PM(2.5) in extreme conditions has not yet been demonstrated. AIM: To evaluate the association between PM(2.5) pollutants the week before, during, and the week after the 2021 wildfires in Athens (Greece) and home BP measurements. METHODS: Home BP measurements were performed, and the readings were transferred to the doctor's office through a telemonitoring system on the patient's Smartphone application. Data from a calibrated, sensor-based PM(2.5) monitoring network assessed PM(2.5) exposure. RESULTS: PM(2.5) pollutants demonstrated a gradual surge while the particle concentration was not different in the selected air pollution measurement stations. A total of 20 consecutive patients with controlled hypertension, mean age 61 ± 9 years, were included in the analysis. For one unit in μg/m(3) increase of PM(2.5) particle concentration, an average of 2.1 mmHg increment in systolic BP was observed after adjustment for confounders (P = 0.023). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings raise the hypothesis that short-term exposure to raised PM(2.5) concentrations in the air appears to be associated with increases in systolic home BP." Telemonitoring systems of home BP recordings may provide important information for the clinical management of hypertensive patients, at least in conditions of major environmental disturbances, such as wildfires.
Wildfires are a complex environmental problem worldwide. The ashes produced during the fire bear metals and PAHs with high toxicity and environmental persistence. These are mobilized into downhill waterbodies, where they can impair water quality and human health. In this context, the present study aimed at assessing the toxicity of mimicked wildfire runoff to human skin cells, providing a first view on the human health hazardous potential of such matrices. Human keratinocytes (HaCaT) were exposed to aqueous extracts of ashes (AEA) prepared from ash deposited in the soil after wildfires burned a pine or a eucalypt forest stand. Cytotoxicity (MTT assay) and changes in cell cycle dynamics (flow cytometry) were assessed. Cell viability decreased with increasing concentrations of AEA, regardless of the ash source, the extracts preparation method (filtered or unfiltered to address the dissolved or the total fractions of contaminants, respectively) or the exposure period (24 and 48 h). The cells growth was also negatively affected by the tested AEA matrices, as evidenced by a deceleration of the progress through the cell cycle, namely from phase G0/G1 to G2. The cytotoxicity of AEA could be related to particulate and dissolved metal content, but the particles themselves may directly affect the cell membrane. Eucalypt ash was apparently more cytotoxic than pine ash due to differential ash metal burden and mobility to the water phase. The deceleration of the cell cycle can be explained by the attempt of cells to repair metal-induced DNA damage, while if this checkpoint and repair pathways are not well coordinated by metal interference, genomic instability may occur. Globally, our results trigger public health concerns since the burnt areas frequently stand in slopes of watershed that serve as recreation sites and sources of drinking water, thus promoting human exposure to wildfire-driven contamination.
Several countries have been affected by natural hazards during the COVID-19 pandemic. The combination of the pandemic and natural hazards has led to serious challenges that include financial losses and psychosocial stress. Additionally, this compound disaster affected evacuation decision making, where to evacuate, volunteer participation in mitigation and recovery, volunteer support acceptance, and interest in other hazard risks. This study investigated the impact of COVID-19 on disaster response and recovery from various types of hazards, with regard to preparedness, evacuation, volunteering, early recovery, awareness and knowledge of different types of hazards, and preparedness capacity development. This study targets hazards such as Cyclone Amphan in India, the Kumamoto flood in Japan, Typhoon Rolly in the Philippines, and the California wildfires in the U.S. This study made several recommendations, such as the fact that mental health support must be taken into consideration during COVID-19 recovery. It is necessary to improve the genral condition of evacuation centers in order to encourage people to act immediately. A pandemic situation necessitates a strong communication strategy and campaign with particular regard to the safety of evacuation centers, the necessity of a lockdown, and the duration required for it to reduce the psychological impact. Both national and local governments are expected to strengthen their disaster risk reduction (DRR) capacity, which calls for the multi-hazard management of disaster risk at all levels and across all sectors.
Research conducted in 2018 documented the disaster experiences of 56 women and men in Australia aged between 18 and 93 years. This paper draws out the gendered factors that affected their resilience, and in so doing, begins to address the dearth of research related to gendered aspects of long-term disaster resilience. It is unique in capturing the voices of survivors who spoke of events 9 years after the 2009 Black Saturday fires and of earlier fires and floods in Victoria more than 50 years ago, including the 1983 Ash Wednesday fires. Over decades, gendered expectations of men and women significantly hindered resilience. Men spoke of the long-term cost to them of demands to ‘be strong’ in the worst of disasters and reasons they were reluctant to seek help afterwards. Women spoke of their contributions holding a lesser value and of discrimination. Discussions of violence against women and children after disaster, and suicide ideation in anticipation of future disasters offered critical insights. Protective factors identified by informants were not wholly intrinsic to their character but were also physical, such as essential resources provided in the immediate aftermath, and psychological and community support offered in the long-term. Factors that helped resilience departed from the ‘masculine’ model of coping post-disaster by moving away from a refusal to admit trauma and suffering, to community-wide resilience bolstered by widespread emotional, social and psychological support. Genuine community planning for disasters before they strike builds trust and offers insights for emergency management planners.
In this study, tweets related to fires in Riau, Sumatra, were identified using carefully selected keywords for the 2014-2019 timeframe. The TAGGS algorithm was applied, which allows for geoparsing based on the user’s nationality and hometown and on direct referrals to specific locations such as name of province or name of city in the message itself. Online newspapers covering Riau were analyzed for the year 2019 to provide additional information about the reasons why fires occurred and other factors, such as impact on people’s health, animal mortality related to ecosystem disruption, visibility, decrease in air quality and limitations in the government firefighting response. Correlation analysis between meteorological information, Twitter activity and satellite-derived hotspots was conducted. The existing approaches that BMKG and other Indonesian agencies use to detect fire activity are reviewed and a novel approach for early fire detection is proposed based on the crowdsourcing of tweets. The policy implications of these results suggest that crowdsourced data can be included in the fire management system in Indonesia to support early fire detection and fire disaster mitigation efforts.
INTRODUCTION: Global climate change (global warming) has been identified as the primary factor responsible for the observed increase in frequency and severity of wildfires (also known as bushfires in some countries) throughout the majority of the world’s vegetated environments. This trend is predicted to continue, causing significant adverse health effects to nearby residential populations and placing a potential strain on local emergency departments (EDs). STUDY OBJECTIVE: The aim of this literature review was to identify papers relating to wildfires and their impact on EDs, specifically patient presentation characteristics, resource utilization, and patient outcomes. METHOD: This integrative literature review was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines for data collection, and Whittemore and Knafl’s framework for data analysis. Data were collected from OvidSP, MEDLINE, DARE, CINAHL, PubMed, and Scopus databases. Various Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and keywords identified papers relevant to wildfires/bushfires and EDs. RESULTS: Literature regarding the relationship between ED presentations and wildfire events, however, is primarily limited to studies from the United States and Australia and indicates particulate matter (PM) is principally linked to adverse respiratory and cardiovascular outcomes. Observable trends in the literature principally included a significant increase in respiratory presentations, primarily with a lag of one to two days from the initial event. Respiratory and cardiovascular studies that stratified results by age indicated individuals under five, over 65, or those with pre-existing conditions formed the majority of ED presentations. CONCLUSION: Key learnings from this review included the need for effective and targeted community advisory programs/procedures, prior to and during wildfire events, as well as pre-event planning, development, and robust resilience strategies for EDs.
The depletion of air quality is a major problem that is faced around the globe. In Australia, the pollutants emitted by bushfires play an important role in making the air polluted. These pollutants in the air result in many adverse impacts on the environment. This paper analysed the air pollution from the bushfires from November 2019 to July 2020 and identified how it affects the human respiratory system. The bush fires burnt over 13 million hectares, destroying over 2400 buildings. While these immediate effects were devastating, the long-term effects were just as devastating, with air pollution causing thousands of people to be admitted to hospitals and emergency departments because of respiratory complications. The pollutant that caused most of the health effects throughout Australia was Particulate Matter (PM) PM(2.5) and PM(10). Data collection and analysis were covered in this paper to illustrate where and when PM(2.5) and PM(10,) and other pollutants were at their most concerning levels. Susceptible areas were identified by analysing environmental factors such as temperature and wind speed. The study identified how these pollutants in the air vary from region to region in the same time interval. This study also focused on how these pollutant distributions vary according to the temperature, which helps to determine the relationship between the heatwave and air quality. A computational model for PM(2.5) aerosol transport to the realistic airways was also developed to understand the bushfire exhaust aerosol transport and deposition in airways. This study would improve the knowledge of the heat wave and bushfire meteorology and corresponding respiratory health impacts.
Australia often experiences natural disasters and extreme weather conditions such as: flooding, sandstorms, heatwaves, and bushfires (also known as wildfires or forest fires). The proportion of the Australian population aged 65 years and over is increasing, alongside the severity and frequency of extreme weather conditions and natural disasters. Extreme heat can affect the entire population but particularly at the extremes of life, and patients with morbidities. Frequently identified as a vulnerable demographic in natural disasters, there is limited research on older adults and their capacity to deal with extreme heat and bushfires. There is a considerable amount of literature that suggests a significant association between mental disorders such as dementia, and increased vulnerability to extreme heat. The prevalence rate for dementia is estimated at 30%by age 85 years, but there has been limited research on the effects extreme heat and bushfires have on individuals living with dementia. This review explores the differential diagnosis of dementia, the Australian climate, and the potential impact Australia’s extreme heat and bushfires have on individuals from vulnerable communities including low socioeconomic status Indigenous and Non-Indigenous populations living with dementia, in both metropolitan and rural communities. Furthermore, we investigate possible prevention strategies and provide suggestions for future research on the topic of Australian bushfires and heatwaves and their impact on people living with dementia. This paper includes recommendations to ensure rural communities have access to appropriate support services, medical treatment, awareness, and information surrounding dementia.
The aim of this study was to investigate coping styles, posttraumatic stress, and mental health symptoms among a sample of community members affected by 2019-20 Australian bushfires. Using a convenience sampling approach, an online survey was used to assess a range of coping strategies, posttraumatic stress and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress among the affected community members of Black Summer bushfires. The results revealed that study participants reported moderate symptoms of depression and stress, and severe levels of anxiety. Additionally, participants reported use of both approach and avoidance coping strategies following the bushfire event as well as experiencing symptoms of posttraumatic stress, such as having intrusive thoughts and symptoms of avoidance and hyperarousal. Despite the durability of many individuals, others remain affected by the event and there is evidence there may be longer term mental health consequences of the bushfires for some people. Given these findings, it is imperative that mental health services be readily available for people in the bushfire-affected areas. Mental health nurses have an important role to play in supporting individuals affected by disasters. Awareness of the short- and long-term impacts of disasters on the mental health of people is paramount for mental health nurses.
BACKGROUND: The April 2019 wildfires in Gangwon Province, South Korea forced the evacuation of 1500 individuals and cost more than $100 million in damages, making it the worst wildfire disaster in Korean history. The purpose of this paper was to investigate the mental health effects on survivors following the wildfires. METHODS: Between April and May 2019, outreach psychological support services were delivered to people impacted by the wildfires. Post-disaster psychological responses using a checklist and the Clinical Global Impression Scale-Severity (CGI-S) were evaluated for 206 wildfires survivors. The CGI-S was administered consequently at 1, 3, and 6 months after baseline measurement. RESULTS: Among four response categories, somatic responses (76.2%) were most frequently observed among the wildfire survivors. Specifically, insomnia (59.2%), anxiety (50%), chest tightness (34%), grief (33%), flashbacks (33%), and depression (32.5%) were reported by over 30% of the participants. The mean CGI-S scores were significantly decreased at 1 month (mean score = 1.94; SE = 0.09) compared to baseline (mean score = 2.94; SE = 0.08) and remained at the decreased level until 6 months (mean score = 1.66; SE = 0.11). However, participants with flashbacks showed significantly higher CGI-S scores compared to those without flashback at 6 months. CONCLUSIONS: Wildfire survivors have various post-disaster responses, especially somatic responses. While most participants’ mental health improved over time, a few of them may have experienced prolonged psychological distress after 6 months. Flashbacks were particularly associated with continuing distress. These results suggest that the characteristics of responses should be considered in early phase intervention and in follow-up plans for disaster survivors.
This paper estimates the wellbeing effects of the 2009 Black Saturday Bushfires, the deadliest wildfire event in Australia’s known history. Using subjective wellbeing data from a nationally representative longitudinal study and adopting an individual fixed-effects approach, our results identify a significant reduction in life satisfaction for individuals residing in close proximity of the wildfires. The negative wellbeing effect is valued at A$52,300. This corresponds to 80% of the average annual income of a full-time employed adult in the state of Victoria. The satisfaction domain most negatively affected is how safe the person feels, and the group most affected are people with low social support. A delayed adverse mental health effect is also identified.
INTRODUCTION: Mortality attributed to fire and flame for children (0-14 years) over a fifty-year period has not been previously analyzed in Australia. The literature has focused on these deaths over a shorter time period or disaggregated with other causes of burns or deaths in one burns center. However, mortality associated with fire/flames affects this age group the greatest. The aims of this study are to: (1) develop a trends analysis of fire and flames mortality between1968 to 2016, using the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) mortality database and, (2) determine the association of interventions with fire and flames mortality using the Haddon’s categorical intervention framework. METHODS: International Classification of Disease (ICD) codes were extracted and code equivalencies between ICD 8, 9, 10 and the Australian Bureau of Statistics for fire/flames data between 1968–2016 were assessed. To determine whether population changes affected the risks of mortality, the frequency and, rates per 100,000 were used. A literature review was conducted that summarized the current knowledge of interventions associated with the major decreases in the fire and flames mortality rate. RESULTS: In Australia, we found was a downward trend for the period although with significant variation from year to year when compared to external cause mortality. Additionally, there were multiple successful interventions associated with a sustained decrease in mortality. After 2016, child fire-related mortality remains a problem particularly in low socioeconomic groups and indigenous peoples. A combination of research, public awareness, engineering, legal enforcement, advancements in burns care and, evidence-based policy development all have a role to play in future injury prevention initiatives. Although direct causation to an individual is not possible, associations can be drawn from interventions on a population level to decreases in mortality. CONCLUSION: We found was a steady decline in both rates and frequency of childhood fire and flames mortality from 1968 to 2016 associated with multiple interventions.
The health effects of the unprecedented bushfires in Australia in 2019-20 have not been fully examined. We aimed to examine the excess emergency department (ED) visits related to the 2019-20 bushfires in New South Wales (NSW). We obtained weekly data of ED visits for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases in all the 28 Statistical Area Level 4 (SA4) regions in NSW during the bushfire seasons from 2017 to 2020. A two-stage interrupted time-series analysis was applied to quantify the excess risk for ED visits in 2019-20. The total number of excess ED visits, excess percentages, and their empirical confidence intervals (eCIs) were calculated to estimate the impacts of the bushfire season. A total of 416,057 records of cardiorespiratory ED visits were included in our analysis. The bushfire season in 2019-20 was significantly associated with a 6.0% increase (95% eCI: 1.9, 10.3) in ED visits for respiratory diseases and a 10.0% increase (95% eCI: 5.0, 15.2) for cardiovascular diseases, corresponding to 6177 (95% eCI: 1989, 10,166) and 3120 (95% eCI: 1628, 4544) excess ED visits, respectively. The percentage of excess ED visits was higher in regions with lower SES and high fire density. In the context of climate change, more targeted strategies should be developed to prevent adverse bushfire effects and recover from such extreme environmental events.
Wildfires pose a significant risk to people and property, which is expected to grow with urban expansion into fire-prone landscapes and climate change causing increases in fire extent, severity and frequency. Identifying spatial patterns associated with wildfire activity is important for assessing the potential impacts of wildfires on human life, property and other values. Here, we model the probability of fire ignitions in vegetation across Victoria, Australia, to determine the key drivers of human- and lightning-caused wildfire ignitions. In particular, we extend previous research to consider the role that fuel moisture has in predicting ignition probability while accounting for environmental and local conditions previously identified as important. We used Random Forests to test the effect of variables measuring infrastructure, topography, climate, fuel and soil moisture, fire history, and local weather conditions to investigate what factors drove ignition probability for human- and lightning-caused ignitions. Human-caused ignitions were predominantly influenced by measures of infrastructure and local weather. Lightning-sourced ignitions were driven by fuel moisture, average annual rainfall and local weather. Both human-and lightning-caused ignitions were influenced by dead fuel moisture with ignitions more likely to occur when dead fuel moisture dropped below 20 %. In future, these models of ignition probability may be used to produce spatial likelihood maps, which will improve our models of future wildfire risk and enable land managers to better allocate resources to areas of increased fire risk during the fire season.
Australia’s summer bushfires of 2020-2021 were catastrophic, negatively impacting people, and the natural environment. This climate change-related event exacerbated the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on public health. Young people are a priority population whose health and livelihoods are significantly impacted by these events. At the same time, young people are active agents for climate action. This exploratory mixed-method study draws on descriptive analyses of survey data (n = 46) and thematic analyses of interview data (n = 6) which demonstrated that some young people, whilst concerned about existential and real impacts of climate change, use contact with nature to cope and as motivation for taking climate actions.
BACKGROUND: From November 2019 to January 2020, eastern Australia experienced the worst bushfires in recorded history. Two months later, Sydney and surrounds were placed into lockdown for six weeks due to the COVID-19 pandemic, followed by ongoing restrictions. Many pregnant women at this time were exposed to both the bushfires and COVID-19 restrictions. OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of exposure to bushfires and pandemic restrictions on perinatal outcomes. METHODS: The study included 60 054 pregnant women who gave birth between November 2017 and December 2020 in South Sydney. Exposure cohorts were based on conception and birthing dates: 1) bushfire late pregnancy, born before lockdown; 2) bushfires in early-mid pregnancy, born during lockdown or soon after; 3) conceived during bushfires, lockdown in second trimester; 4) conceived after bushfires, pregnancy during restrictions. Exposure cohorts were compared with pregnancies in the matching periods in the two years prior. Associations between exposure cohorts and gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, hypertension, stillbirth, mode of birth, birthweight, preterm birth and small for gestational age were assessed using generalised estimating equations, adjusting for covariates. RESULTS: A decrease in low birth weight was observed for cohort 1 (aOR 0.81, 95%CI 0.69, 0.95). Conversely, cohort 2 showed an increase in low birth weight, and increases in prelabour rupture of membranes, and caesarean sections (aOR 1.18, 95%CI 1.03, 1.37; aOR 1.21, 95%CI 1.07, 1.37; aOR 1.10 (1.02, 1.18) respectively). Cohort 3 showed an increase in unplanned caesarean sections and high birth weight babies (aOR 1.15, 95%CI 1.04, 1.27 and aOR 1.16, 95%CI 1.02, 1.31 respectively), and a decrease in gestational diabetes mellitus was observed for both cohorts 3 and 4. CONCLUSION: Pregnancies exposed to both severe climate events and pandemic disruptions appear to have increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes beyond only experiencing one event, but further research is needed.
Extreme heat and poor air quality arising from landscape fires are an increasing global concern driven by anthropogenic climate change. Previous studies have shown these environmental conditions are associated with negative health outcomes for vulnerable people. Managing and adapting to these conditions in a warming climate can present substantial difficulties, especially in climates already challenging for human habitation. This study was set in the tropical city of Darwin, Australia. We recruited individuals from population groups vulnerable to outdoor hazards: outdoor workers, teachers and carers, and sportspeople, to participate in focus group discussions. We aimed to gain an understanding of the impacts of extreme heat and poor air quality and how individuals perceived and managed these environmental conditions. We identified a number of key themes relating to impacts on health, work and activity, and adaptive behaviors, while identifying gaps in policy and infrastructure that could improve the lives and protect the health of vulnerable people living, working, and playing in this region. In addition, these outcomes potentially provide direction for other regions with similar environmental challenges. Extreme heat and poor air quality place an additional burden on the lives of people in high-risk settings, such as outdoor workers, teachers and carers, and sportspeople.
OBJECTIVES: In April 2000, a series of wildfires occurred simultaneously in five adjacent small cities located on the eastern coast of Korea. These wildfires burned approximately 23,794 hectares of forestland over several days. We investigated the effects of prenatal exposure to the by-products generated by wildfire disasters on birth weight. METHODS: Birth weight data were obtained for 1999-2001 from the birth registration database of the Korean National Statistical Office and matched with the zip code and exposed/unexposed pregnancy week for days of the wildfires. Generalized linear models were then used to assess the associations between birth weight and exposure to wildfires after adjusting for fetal sex, gestational age, parity, maternal age, maternal education, paternal education, and average exposed atmospheric temperature. RESULTS: Compared with unexposed pregnancies before and after the wildfires, mean birth weight decreased by 41.4 g (95% confidence interval [CI], -72.4 to -10.4) after wildfire exposure during the first trimester, 23.2 g (95% CI, -59.3 to 13.0) for exposure during the second trimester, and 27.0 g (95% CI, -63.8 to 9.8) during the third trimester. In the adjusted model for infants exposed in utero during any trimester, the mean birth weight decreased by 32.5 g (95% CI, -53.2 to -11.7). CONCLUSIONS: We observed a 1% reduction in birth weight after wildfire exposure. Thus, exposure to by-products generated during a wildfire disaster during pregnancy may slow fetal growth and cause developmental delays.
BACKGROUND: Studies on the association between smoke haze (hereafter ‘haze’) and adverse health effects have increased in recent years due to extreme weather conditions and the increased occurrence of vegetation fires. The possible adverse health effects on under-five children (U5Y) is especially worrying due to their vulnerable condition. Despite continuous repetition of serious haze occurrence in Southeast Asia, epidemiological studies in this region remained scarce. Furthermore, no study had examined the association accounting for three important aspects (time lag, duration and intensity) concurrently. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to examine the association between haze and U5Y mortality in Malaysia, considering time lag, duration and intensity of exposure. METHODS: We performed a time-stratified case-crossover study using a generalized additive model to examine the U5Y mortality related to haze in 12 districts in Malaysia, spanning from 2014 to 2016. A ‘haze day’ was characterized by intensity [based on concentrations of particulate matter (PM)] and duration (continuity of haze occurrence, up to 3 days). RESULTS: We observed the highest but non-significant odds ratios (ORs) of U5Y mortality at lag 4 of Intensity-3. Lag patterns revealed the possibility of higher acuteness at prolonged and intensified haze. Stratifying the districts by the 95th-percentile of PM distribution, the ‘low’ category demonstrated marginal positive association at Intensity-2 Duration-3 [OR: 1.210 (95% confidence interval: 1.000, 1.464)]. CONCLUSIONS: We found a null association between haze and U5Y mortality. The different lag patterns of the association observed over different duration and intensity suggest consideration of these aspects in future studies.
Interactions between climate change and anthropogenic activities result in increasing numbers of open fires, which have been shown to harm maternal health. However, few studies have examined the association between open fire and pregnancy loss. We conduct a self-comparison case-control study including 24,876 mothers from South Asia, the region with the heaviest pregnancy-loss burden in the world. Exposure is assessed using a chemical transport model as the concentrations of fire-sourced PM(2.5) (i.e., fire PM(2.5)). The adjusted odds ratio (OR) of pregnancy loss for a 1-μg/m(3) increment in averaged concentration of fire PM(2.5) during pregnancy is estimated as 1.051 (95% confidence intervals [CI]: 1.035, 1.067). Because fire PM(2.5) is more strongly linked with pregnancy loss than non-fire PM(2.5) (OR: 1.014; 95% CI: 1.011, 1.016), it contributes to a non-neglectable fraction (13%) of PM(2.5)-associated pregnancy loss. Here, we show maternal health is threaten by gestational exposure to fire smoke in South Asia.
Wildfires are increasing and cause health effects. The immediate and ongoing health impacts of prolonged wildfire smoke exposure in severe asthma are unknown. This longitudinal study examined the experiences and health impacts of prolonged wildfire (bushfire) smoke exposure in adults with severe asthma during the 2019/2020 Australian bushfire period. Participants from Eastern/Southern Australia who had previously enrolled in an asthma registry completed a questionnaire survey regarding symptoms, asthma attacks, quality of life and smoke exposure mitigation during the bushfires and in the months following exposure. Daily individualized exposure to bushfire particulate matter (PM(2.5)) was estimated by geolocation and validated modelling. Respondents (n = 240) had a median age of 63 years, 60% were female and 92% had severe asthma. They experienced prolonged intense PM(2.5) exposure (mean PM(2.5) 32.5 μg/m(3) on 55 bushfire days). Most (83%) of the participants experienced symptoms during the bushfire period, including: breathlessness (57%); wheeze/whistling chest (53%); and cough (50%). A total of 44% required oral corticosteroid treatment for an asthma attack and 65% reported reduced capacity to participate in usual activities. About half of the participants received information/advice regarding asthma management (45%) and smoke exposure minimization strategies (52%). Most of the participants stayed indoors (88%) and kept the windows/doors shut when inside (93%), but this did not clearly mitigate the symptoms. Following the bushfire period, 65% of the participants reported persistent asthma symptoms. Monoclonal antibody use for asthma was associated with a reduced risk of persistent symptoms. Intense and prolonged PM(2.5) exposure during the 2019/2020 bushfires was associated with acute and persistent symptoms among people with severe asthma. There are opportunities to improve the exposure mitigation strategies and communicate these to people with severe asthma.
Objective: Adults born either extremely preterm (EP, <28 weeks gestation) or extremely low birthweight (ELBW, <1000 g birthweight) have more obstructive airflow than controls of normal birthweight (>2499 g). We compared self-reported adverse respiratory health outcomes in young adults born EP/ELBW with controls following smoke exposure from the 2019/2020 wildfires in the Australian state of Victoria, and explored if any effects were mediated by airway obstruction, reflected in the forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1). Methods: EP/ELBW participants were derived from all survivors born in the state of Victoria in 1991–92. Contemporaneous controls of normal birthweight (>2499 g) were recruited in the newborn period and matched for sociodemographic variables. Both groups had been assessed at intervals through childhood and into adulthood. Those who participated in the most recent follow-up assessment at 25 years of age, when FEV1 had been measured, were sent a survey when they were approximately 28 years of age asking about respiratory health related outcomes (respiratory symptoms, health services usage, medication uptake) following wildfire smoke exposure over the southern hemisphere summer of 2019–20. Results: A total of 296 participants (166 EP/ELBW; 130 controls) were sent the survey; 44% of the EP/ELBW group and 47% of the control group responded. Compared with controls, EP/ELBW respondents reported more overall respiratory problems (30%vs 20%) and specific respiratory symptoms (breathlessness, wheezing, cough and chest tightness) following wildfire smoke exposure, as well as higher health services usage (e.g. local health clinic, hospital emergency department) and medication uptake for respiratory-related problems. Higher FEV1 values were associated with lower odds of most self-reported respiratory symptoms; adjusting for FEV1 attenuated the differences between EP/ELW and control groups. Conclusion: Survivors born EP/ELBW may be at an increased risk of adverse respiratory health outcomes following wildfire smoke exposure in early adulthood, in part related to worse expiratory airflows.
The Australian 2019/2020 bushfires were unprecedented in their extent and intensity, causing a catastrophic loss of habitat, human and animal life across eastern-Australia. We use a regional air quality model to assess the impact of the bushfires on particulate matter with a diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM(2.5)) concentrations and the associated health impact from short-term population exposure to bushfire PM(2.5). The mean population Air Quality Index (AQI) exposure between September and February in the fires and no fires simulations indicates an additional ∼437,000 people were exposed to “Poor” or worse AQI levels due to the fires. The AQ impact was concentrated in the cities of Sydney, Newcastle-Maitland, Canberra-Queanbeyan and Melbourne. Between October and February 171 (95% CI: 66-291) deaths were brought forward due to short-term exposure to bushfire PM(2.5). The health burden was largest in New South Wales (NSW) (109 (95% CI: 41-176) deaths brought forward), Queensland (15 (95% CI: 5-24)), and Victoria (35 (95% CI: 13-56)). This represents 38%, 13% and 30% of the total deaths brought forward by short-term exposure to all PM(2.5). At a city-level 65 (95% CI: 24-105), 23 (95% CI: 9-38) and 9 (95% CI: 4-14) deaths were brought forward from short-term exposure to bushfire PM(2.5), accounting for 36%, 20%, and 64% of the total deaths brought forward from all PM(2.5.) Thus, the bushfires caused substantial AQ and health impacts across eastern-Australia. Climate change is projected to increase bushfire risk, therefore future fire management policies should consider this.
This study investigated the contributions of particulate matter (PM) from various emission sources during the dry season, which resulted from frequent fires occurring in degraded forests and peatlands in Indonesia. Samples of fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM2.5-10) particles collected during the dry season in Riau, Indonesia were analyzed to determine the mass concentrations of metallic trace elements, ionic compound, black carbon (BC), and organic carbon (OC). The average concentrations of PM2.5 and PM2.5-10 at Riau, Indonesia were 63.85 +/- 3.22 mu g m(-3) and 27.72 +/- 2.40 mu g m(-3), respectively. The positive matrix factorization (PMF) model was adopted to identify possible PM sources and their contributions to the ambient PM level. The PMF results identified six major PM2.5 sources, including biomass burning (BB) (28.7%), secondary aerosols (SA) (26.9%), vehicle exhaust (VE) (12.8%), industrial emissions (IE) (12.3%), soil dust (SD) (11.9%), and sea salt (SS) (7.5%). Moreover, there were five primary PM2.5-10 sources, including VE (28.6%) and BB (24%), followed by IE (19.9%), SD (17.2%), and SA (15.3%). A conditional probability function (CPF) analysis revealed that the southeast sector dominated among source direction-dependent contributions. The noncarcinogenic health risks for both adults and children resulting from exposure to PM2.5 were mainly contributed by Co, Ni, and Mn, and carcinogenic risks were caused by the toxic metals Cr and Co. Both noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks resulting from cumulative multielement exposure for both adults and children exceeded acceptable levels. Clearly, more attention should be devoted to reducing the noncarcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks caused by particulate-bound toxic elements through inhalation exposure.
Over the past 30 years, forest fire has been one of main ecological issues in Indonesia. Human-caused deforestation was accused to be the reason behind this matter, apart from the drastic changing in global climate. Palangkaraya is one of the citiesaffected by haze of the forest fire in 2015; considered to be the worst year of forest fire with the value of PM10 was above the normal threshold. As the impact to the community wellbeing, the prevalence of acute respiratory infection (ARI) in October 2015was increasing especially in children. The research aimed to analyse the spatial distribution of children with ARI in October 2015 at Palangkaraya City. Data onARI number were collected from Primary Care under Public Health Office of Palangkaraya City. The PM 10 value was collected bythe Environmental Agency of Palangkaraya City. The spatial analyse method was conducted using theAverage Nearest Neighbour (ANN) method. The result shows that the number of ANN ratio is 0.761801. It means that the distribution pattern of children with ARI in Central Kalimantan during the forest fire in October 2015 was in cluster form.
BACKGROUND: Climate change has resulted in an increase in ambient temperatures during the summer months as well as an increase in risk of associated air pollution and of potentially disastrous bushfires throughout much of the world. The increasingly frequent combination of elevated summer temperatures and bushfires may be associated with acute increases in risks of cardiovascular events, but this relationship remains unstudied. We evaluated the individual and cumulative impacts of daily fluctuations in temperature, fine particulate matter of less than 2.5 µm (PM(2.5)) pollution and presence of bushfires on incidence of acute coronary syndromes and Takotsubo syndrome. METHODS: From November 1, 2019, to February 28, 2020, all admissions with acute coronary syndromes or Takotsubo syndrome to South Australian tertiary public hospitals were evaluated. Univariate and combined associations were sought among each of 1) maximal daily temperature, 2) PM(2.5) concentrations, and 3) presence of active bushfires within 200 km of the hospitals concerned. RESULTS: A total of 504 patients with acute coronary syndromes and 35 with Takotsubo syndrome were studied. In isolation, increasing temperature was associated (r(s) = 0.26, P = .005) with increased incidence of acute coronary syndromes, while there were similar, but nonsignificant correlations for PM(2.5) and presence of bushfires. Combinations of all these risk factors were also associated with a doubling of risk of acute coronary syndromes. No significant associations were found for Takotsubo syndrome. CONCLUSION: The combination of high temperatures, presence of bushfires and associated elevation of atmospheric PM(2.5) concentrations represents a substantially increased risk for precipitation of acute coronary syndromes; this risk should be factored into health care planning including public education and acute hospital preparedness.
We investigated the association between respiratory symptoms and psychological distress in the context of a prolonged smoke event, and evaluated whether smoke exposure, or pre-existing respiratory and mental health conditions, influenced the association. Three thousand ninety-six residents of a rural town heavily exposed to smoke from the 6-week Hazelwood coal mine fire, and 960 residents of a nearby unexposed town, completed Kessler’s psychological distress questionnaire (K10) and a modified European Community Respiratory Health Survey. Logistic regression models evaluated associations between distress and respiratory symptoms, with interactions fitted to evaluate effect modification. Smoke exposed participants reported higher levels of distress than those unexposed, and participants reporting respiratory symptoms recorded higher levels of distress than participants without respiratory symptoms, irrespective of exposure. 5-unit increments in K10 scores were associated with 21%-48% increases in the odds of reporting respiratory symptoms. There were significant interactions with pre-existing asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and mental health conditions, but not with smoke exposure. Although participants with pre-existing conditions were more likely to report respiratory symptoms, increasing distress was most strongly associated with respiratory symptoms among those without pre-existing conditions. Communities exposed to landscape fire smoke could benefit from interventions to reduce both psychological and respiratory distress.
A sense of psychological connectedness with the natural world has important benefits for global health. In a time of environmental crisis, however, it may also be accompanied by mental health risks. We used national survey data collected after a severe Australian bushfire season (N = 3,875) to test a path model of the relationships between nature connectedness, worry about climate change, individual and collective climate action, and psychological distress (depression, anxiety, stress). We found that nature connectedness was positively associated with climate worry that, in turn, was positively associated with climate action and psychological distress. Whereas taking individual climate action was associated with reduced psychological distress, taking collective climate action had the opposite effect. Our findings provide new insights into potential processes underlying the association between nature connectedness and mental health in the climate change context and point to an urgent need to protect the well-being of people engaging in collective climate action.
This paper presents new evidence of the causal effect of air pollution on Australian health outcomes, using the Black Saturday bushfires (BSB) in 2009 as a natural experiment. This event was one of the largest bushfires in Australian history and emitted approximately four million tonnes of CO(2) into the atmosphere. We use data from the Household Income and Labour Dynamic Australia (HILDA) panel and compare the health status of individuals who were living in affected and unaffected regions before and after the event. Using a triple differences procedure, we further examine whether a difference in vulnerability to bushfire smoke exists comparing people living in urban or regional areas. We find that ambient air pollution had significant negative effects on health and that the magnitudes were actually larger for individuals residing in urban areas.
Smoke from forest fires can reach hazardous levels for extended periods of time. We aimed to determine if there is an association between particulate matter ≤2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5) and living in a forest fire–prone province and cognitive function. We used data from the Indonesian Family and Life Survey. Cognitive function was assessed by the Ravens Colored Progressive Matrices (RCPM). We used regression models to estimate associations between PM2.5 and living in a forest fire–prone province and cognitive function. In multivariable models, we found very small positive relationships between PM2.5 levels and RCPM scores (PM2.5 level at year of survey: β = 0.1%; 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.01, 0.19%]). There were no differences in RCPM scores for children living in forest fire–prone provinces compared with children living in non-forest fire–prone provinces (mean difference = −1.16%, 95% CI [–2.53, 0.21]). RCPM scores were lower for children who had lived in a forest fire–prone province all their lives compared with children who lived in a non-forest fire–prone province all their life (β = −1.50%; 95% CI [–2.94, –0.07]). Living in a forest fire–prone province for a prolonged period of time negatively affected cognitive scores after adjusting for individual factors.
Due to climate change, catastrophic events such as landscape fires are increasing in frequency and severity. However, relatively little is known about the longer-term mental health outcomes of such events. Follow-up was conducted of 709 adults exposed to smoke from the 2014 Hazelwood mine fire in Morwell, Victoria, Australia. Participants completed two surveys evaluating posttraumatic distress, measured using the Impact of Events Scale-Revised (IES-R), three and six years after the mine fire. Mixed-effects regression models were used to evaluate longitudinal changes in distress. IES-R total scores increased on average by 2.6 points (95%CI: 1.2 to 3.9 points) between the two survey rounds, with increases across all three posttraumatic distress symptom clusters, particularly intrusive symptoms. This increase in distress was evident across all levels of fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) exposure to the mine fire smoke. Age was an effect modifier between mine fire PM(2.5) exposure and posttraumatic distress, with younger adults impacted more by exposure to the mine fire. Greater exposure to PM(2.5) from the mine fire was still associated with increased psychological distress some six years later, with the overall level of distress increasing between the two survey rounds. The follow-up survey coincided with the Black Summer bushfire season in south-eastern Australia and exposure to this new smoke event may have triggered distress sensitivities stemming from exposure to the earlier mine fire. Public health responses to disaster events should take into consideration prior exposures and vulnerable groups, particularly younger adults.
The 2019-20 bushfires that raged in eastern Australia were an overwhelming natural disaster leading to lives lost or upended, and communities destroyed. For almost a month, Canberra, Australia’s capital city in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), was obscured by smoke from fires which threatened the outer suburbs. While smoke itself is experientially different from many natural disasters, it nevertheless poses a significant public health threat. As the impact of extended bushfire smoke in an urban setting is relatively unexplored we aimed to capture the individual and community-level experiences of the event and their importance for community and social functioning. We responded rapidly by conducting semi-structured interviews with a range of Canberra residents who, due to their personal or social circumstances, were potentially vulnerable to the effects of the smoke. Three major themes emerging from the narratives depicted disruption to daily life, physical and psychological effects, and shifting social connectedness. This study highlighted the ambiguous yet impactful nature of a bushfire smoke event, and identified four simple key messages that may be critically relevant to policy making in preparation for similar smoke events in the future.
The 2019-2020 summer wildfire event on the east coast of Australia was a series of major wildfires occurring from November 2019 to end of January 2020 across the states of Queensland, New South Wales (NSW), Victoria and South Australia. The wildfires were unprecedent in scope and the extensive character of the wildfires caused smoke pollutants to be transported not only to New Zealand, but also across the Pacific Ocean to South America. At the peak of the wildfires, smoke plumes were injected into the stratosphere at a height of up to 25 km and hence transported across the globe. The meteorological and air quality Weather Research and Forecasting with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) model is used together with the air quality monitoring data collected during the bushfire period and remote sensing data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) satellites to determine the extent of the wildfires, the pollutant transport and their impacts on air quality and health of the exposed population in NSW. The results showed that the WRF-Chem model using Fire Emission Inventory (FINN) from National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) to simulate the dispersion and transport of pollutants from wildfires predicted the daily concentration of PM2.5 having the correlation (R-2) and index of agreement (IOA) from 0.6 to 0.75 and 0.61 to 0.86, respectively, when compared with the ground-based data. The impact on health endpoints such as mortality and respiratory and cardiovascular diseases hospitalizations across the modelling domain was then estimated. The estimated health impact on each of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) census districts (SA4) of New South Wales was calculated based on epidemiological assumptions of the impact function and incidence rate data from the 2016 ABS and NSW Department of Health statistical health records. Summing up all SA4 census district results over NSW, we estimated that there were 247 (CI: 89, 409) premature deaths, 437 (CI: 81, 984) cardiovascular diseases hospitalizations and 1535 (CI: 493, 2087) respiratory diseases hospitalizations in NSW over the period from 1 November 2019 to 8 January 2020. The results are comparable with a previous study based only on observation data, but the results in this study provide much more spatially and temporally detailed data with regard to the health impact from the summer 2019-2020 wildfires.
Persistent and intensive wildland dense-fires (DFs) release substantial amounts of airborne pollutants, resulting in a sharp increase in emissions and leading to serious impacts on the environment and human health over extensive geographical areas. It is challenging to thoroughly investigate patterns of fire occurrence and fire distribution for predicting wildfire behaviour, and it is especially difficult to distinguish the characteristics of human-caused and climate-driven fires. Here, we identify and assess dense-fire (DF) from the perspective of spatiotemporally integrated processes using a machine-learning method based on a density-based clustering algorithm with noise constraint ratio. DFs represent collections of fires with homogenous behaviour and therefore allow the study of their internal features, which can reveal fixed patterns of fire occurrence and dis-tribution as well as the evolution of fires over time. We estimated and labelled thousands of fire clusters on the Indochina Peninsula between 2010 and 2020, most of which occurred between December and May. For large-scale DFs, the number of fires contained and amount of atmospheric pollutants emitted were accounted for throughout most of the region, and the time, location and scale of their occurrence each year were relatively stable and predictable. Furthermore, the results of a secondary cluster analysis of fire interactions over the past decade showed two extreme fire events, labelled “north ” and “south ” groups, whose activities significantly impacted the atmospheric environment of the Indochina Peninsula. Additionally, we predicted their start/end dates and daily emissions. The study also found that the recurrence of high-density fires and the correlation between the DF edge and administrative border suggested a positive anthropogenic influence. To the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to analyze fires in a spatiotemporal Euclidean space by using density-based clustering, with high-density fires as independent subjects to study fire behaviour. The method proposed in this study can provide a reference for wildfire prediction and emission forecasting and fire control work.
El nivel de riesgo meteorológico diario de incendios forestales está basado en el sistema canadiense y se calcula a partir de los datos de las estaciones meteorológicas de AEMET y de las salidas de un modelo numérico de predicción del tiempo. Las variables de entrada del modelo de estimación de riesgo son: la temperatura del aire seco T (ºC), la humedad relativa del aire Hr (%), la velocidad del viento Vv (km/h) y la precipitación registrada en las últimas 24 horas Pp (mm). Los datos del análisis y pronóstico se refieren a las 12 UTC con el fin de obtener el valor de máximo riesgo diario, lo que sucede en torno al mediodía, si bien su valor tiene validez desde varias horas antes hasta varias horas después de las 12 UTC.
En la AEMET los datos que intervienen en el cálculo de los niveles de riesgo proceden de su red de estaciones sinópticas y automáticas y del modelo CEPPM (resolución espacial de 0.05º y ventana de trabajo de 47.367 puntos de rejilla). Cada punto de rejilla se sitúa en el centro de un cuadrado o píxel de 5 km de lado, por tanto, las variables de cálculo son representativas de un área de 25 km2 o 2500 ha.
El riesgo de incendio se estratifica en cinco clases o niveles de riesgo (bajo, moderado, alto, muy alto y extremo) que serán indicadores de la probabilidad de ocurrencia del fuego así como de la extensión e intensidad del mismo.
The Fire Danger Index (FDI) uses 5 categories to rate the fire danger represented by colour codes [Blue (insignificant) (0-20), Green (low) (21-45), Yellow (moderate) (46-60), Orange (high) (61-75) and Red (extremely high) (75<)]. Each of the danger rating is accompanied by precaution statement.
El Sistema de Alerta Temprana en Incendios Forestales (SATIF) permite evaluar los distintos elementos que afectan la probable ocurrencia y el potencial comportamiento del fuego; así mismo es de importancia para planificar la prevención y el control de incendios, ayudando a una mejor asignación de los recursos.
El SATIF, se basa únicamente en el cálculo de las siguientes variables meteorológicas: Temperatura (ºC),
Humedad Relativa (%), Velocidad del Viento (km/h), Lluvia (mm).
There are three different level of forest fire warnings (yellow, orange and red) and one in grass fire warnings (yellow). They all refer in law to the same thing, that it is forbidden to start open fire. Probability for large and quickly progressive forest fires increase, when it is orange or red warning.
A forest fire warning is usually given and cancelled at 6 am. The warnings are specific to each province. Municipality-specific warnings may also be given in Northern Ostrobothnia (mainly for Kuusamo, Taivalkoski and Pudasjärvi) and in Lapland.
Forest fire warnings are issued using an index calculated by means of a model that describes moisture conditions in the top soil layer measuring about 6 centimetres in thickness. The input data for the model includes precipitation and air temperature.
Most often, the first forest fire warnings of the year are issued in early May. The forest fire warning season ends in September or at the latest in early October.
Numerous studies have linked outdoor levels of PM2.5, PM10, NO2, O-3, SO2, and other air pollutants to significantly higher rates of Covid 19 morbidity and mortality, although the rate in which specific concentrations of pollutants increase Covid 19 morbidity and mortality varies widely by specific country and study. As little as a 1-mu g/m(3) increase in outdoor PM2.5 is estimated to increase rates of Covid 19 by as much as 0.22 to 8%. Two California studies have strongly linked heavy wildfire burning periods with significantly higher outdoor levels of PM2.5 and CO as well as significantly higher rates of Covid 19 cases and deaths. Active smoking has also been strongly linked significantly increased risk of Covid 19 severity and death. Other exposures possibly related to greater risk of Covid 19 morbidity and mortality include incense, pesticides, heavy metals, dust/sand, toxic waste sites, and volcanic emissions. The exact mechanisms in which air pollutants increase Covid 19 infections are not fully understood, but are probably related to pollutant-related oxidation and inflammation of the lungs and other tissues and to the pollutant-driven alternation of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in respiratory and other cells.
Public health officials communicate the relevant risks of bushfire smoke exposure and associated health protection measures to affected populations. Increasing global bushfire incidence in the context of climate change motivated this scoping review. English-language publications related to adverse health outcomes following bushfire smoke exposure and publications relating to communication during natural disasters were included. Bushfire smoke events potentially increase healthcare contact, especially presentations triggered by respiratory illness. At-risk populations include those with underlying cardiorespiratory disease, elderly, paediatric, pregnant persons, and First Nations people. We found that social media, television, and radio are among the most common information sources utilised in bushfire smoke events. Message style, content, and method of delivery can directly influence message uptake and behaviour modification. Age, rurality, and geographical location influence information source preferences. Culturally and linguistically diverse groups and those with hearing, vision, and mobility-related disabilities may benefit from targeted health recommendations. This review emphasises the health effects of bushfire smoke exposure and related communication recommendations during and after bushfire smoke events. Additional investigation may further clarify the health effects of bushfire smoke exposure and efficacy of related health messaging, particularly in at-risk populations. Quantitative comparison of communication methods may yield more specific recommendations for future bushfire smoke events.
Wildfires are increasing in frequency, size, and intensity, and increasingly affect highly populated areas. Wildfire smoke impacts cardiorespiratory health; children are at increased risk due to smaller airways, a higher metabolic rate and ongoing development. The objective of this systematic review was to describe the risk of pediatric respiratory symptoms and healthcare visits following exposure to wildfire smoke. Medical and scientific databases and the grey literature were searched from inception until December 2020. Included studies evaluated pediatric respiratory-related healthcare visits or symptoms associated with wildfire smoke exposure. Prescribed burns, non-respiratory symptoms and non-pediatric studies were excluded. Risk of bias was evaluated using the National Toxicology Program’s Office of Health Assessment and Translation Risk of Bias Rating Tool. Data are presented narratively due to study heterogeneity. Of 2138 results, 1167 titles and abstracts were screened after duplicate removal; 65 full text screens identified 5 pre-post and 11 cross-sectional studies of rural, urban and mixed sites from the USA, Australia, Canada and Spain. There is a significant increase in respiratory emergency department visits and asthma hospitalizations within the first 3 days of exposure to wildfire smoke, particularly in children < 5 years old.
Air quality impacts from wildfires have been dramatic in recent years, with millions of people exposed to elevated and sometimes hazardous fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations for extended periods. Fires emit particulate matter (PM) and gaseous compounds that can negatively impact human health and reduce visibility. While the overall trend in U.S. air quality has been improving for decades, largely due to implementation of the Clean Air Act, seasonal wildfires threaten to undo this in some regions of the United States. Our understanding of the health effects of smoke is growing with regard to respiratory and cardiovascular consequences and mortality. The costs of these health outcomes can exceed the billions already spent on wildfire suppression. In this critical review, we examine each of the processes that influence wildland fires and the effects of fires, including the natural role of wildland fire, forest management, ignitions, emissions, transport, chemistry, and human health impacts. We highlight key data gaps and examine the complexity and scope and scale of fire occurrence, estimated emissions, and resulting effects on regional air quality across the United States. The goal is to clarify which areas are well understood and which need more study. We conclude with a set of recommendations for future research. Implications In the recent decade the area of wildfires in the United States has increased dramatically and the resulting smoke has exposed millions of people to unhealthy air quality. In this critical review we examine the key factors and impacts from fires including natural role of wildland fire, forest management, ignitions, emissions, transport, chemistry and human health.
Wildland firefighters work on wildfire incidents all over the United States and perform arduous work under extreme work conditions, including exposure to smoke. Wildland fire smoke is a mixture of hazardous air pollutants. For assessing wildland firefighter exposure to smoke, most studies measured carbon monoixde (CO) and particulate matter and reported changes in lung health by measured lung function, airway responsiveness, and respiratory symptoms across individual work shifts and single fire seasons. All fire personnel should understand the hazards of smoke and develop ways to mitigate exposure to smoke.
Catastrophic wildfires are increasing around the globe as climate change continues to progress. Another risk factor for large wildfires in the western United States is a legacy of fire suppression that has allowed overgrowth of underbrush and small trees in forests where periodic lightning-sparked wildfires are part of the natural ecosystem. Wildfire smoke contains CO(2), CO, NOx, particulate matter, complex hydrocarbons (including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), and irritant gases, including many of the same toxic and carcinogenic substances as cigarette smoke. The public need clear and consistent messaging to understand that wildland fire smoke poses a health risk.
Since air pollutants are difficult and expensive to control, a strong scientific underpinning to policies is needed to guide mitigation aimed at reducing the current burden on public health. Much of the evidence concerning hazard identification and risk quantification related to air pollution comes from epidemiological studies. This must be reinforced with mechanistic confirmation to infer causality. In this review we focus on data generated from four contrasting sources of particulate air pollution that result in high population exposures and thus where there remains an unmet need to protect health: urban air pollution in developing megacities, household biomass combustion, wildfires and desert dust storms. Taking each in turn, appropriate measures to protect populations will involve advocating smart cities and addressing economic and behavioural barriers to sustained adoption of clean stoves and fuels. Like all natural hazards, wildfires and dust storms are a feature of the landscape that cannot be removed. However, many efforts from emission containment (land/fire management practices), exposure avoidance and identifying susceptible populations can be taken to prepare for air pollution episodes and ensure people are out of harm’s way when conditions are life-threatening. Communities residing in areas affected by unhealthy concentrations of any airborne particles will benefit from optimum communication via public awareness campaigns, designed to empower people to modify behaviour in a way that improves their health as well as the quality of the air they breathe.
Wildfire smoke is an increasing environmental health threat to which children are particularly vulnerable, for both physiologic and behavioral reasons. To address the need for improved public health messaging this review summarizes current knowledge and knowledge gaps in the health effects of wildfire smoke in children, as well as tools for public health response aimed at children, including consideration of low-cost sensor data, respirators, and exposures in school environments. There is an established literature of health effects in children from components of ambient air pollution, which are also present in wildfire smoke, and an emerging literature on the effects of wildfire smoke, particularly for respiratory outcomes. Low-cost particulate sensors demonstrate the spatial variability of pollution, including wildfire smoke, where children live and play. Surgical masks and respirators can provide limited protection for children during wildfire events, with expected decreases of roughly 20% and 80% for surgical masks and N95 respirators, respectively. Schools should improve filtration to reduce exposure of our nation’s children to smoke during wildfire events. The evidence base described may help clinical and public health authorities provide accurate information to families to improve their decision making.
Wildfire smoke harms health. We add to this literature by evaluating the health effects of California’s 2018 Carr Fire and preceding wildfire seasons in Shasta County. METHODS: With data from the Shasta County Health and Human Services Agency, we examined the link between weekly wildfire fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) exposure estimated using a spatiotemporal multiple imputation approach and emergency department (ED) visits and mortality using time-series models that controlled for temporal trends and temperature. RESULTS: Between 2013 and 2018, Shasta County experienced 19 weeks with average wildfire PM(2.5) ?5.5 ?g/m(3) (hereafter, “high wildfire PM(2.5) concentration”). Among all Shasta County Zip Code Tabulation Areas (ZCTAs; n = 36), we detected no association between high wildfire PM(2.5) concentrations and respiratory or circulatory disease-related ED visits or mortality. Subsequent analyses were confined to valley ZCTAs (n = 11, lower elevation, majority of population, worse air quality in general). In valley ZCTAs, high wildfire PM(2.5) was associated with a 14.6% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 4.2, 24.9) increase in same-week respiratory disease-related ED visits but no increase in the subsequent 2 weeks nor on circulatory disease-related mortality or ED visits or all-cause mortality. Two weeks after high wildfire PM(2.5) weeks, respiratory disease-related deaths decreased (-31.5%, 95% CI = -64.4, 1.5). The 2018 Carr Fire appeared to increase respiratory disease-related ED visits by 27.0% (95% CI = 4.0, 50.0) over expectation and possibly reduce circulatory disease-related deaths (-18.2%, 95% CI = -39.4, 2.9). CONCLUSIONS: As climate change fuels wildfire seasons, studies must continue to evaluate their health effects, particularly in highly exposed populations.
The 2018 Camp Fire caused significant damages to the education and healthcare systems in the town of Paradise, CA. This paper presents the findings of a qualitative case study about disaster impacts and disparities, interdependencies, and recovery strategies of schools and hospitals in Paradise. Four major themes of findings emerged from the qualitative analysis of interviews with teachers, counselors, and administrators in Paradise education and healthcare systems and extensive archival research. First, complex and long-standing mental health challenges are the dominant impact on the educational system. Second, educational and healthcare impacts are shaped by social vulnerability. Third, educational and healthcare systems play a critical role for recovery of socially vulnerable groups due to the interconnectedness of community components. Fourth, adapting to new communication norms and technologies is effective for supporting educational and community recovery. Several specific recommendations are provided based on the findings for building back more resilient and equitable education and healthcare services.
Natural disasters are potentially traumatic events due to their disruptive nature and high impact on social and physical environments, particularly for children and adolescents. The present study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Children’s Revised Impact of Event Scale (CRIES-13) in a sample of Portuguese children and adolescents exposed to a specific type of natural disaster (i.e., wildfire). The sample was recruited at six school units of the Central region of Portugal following wildfires in the summer of 2017 and included children and adolescents without a clinical diagnosis of a psychopathological condition associated with exposure to the traumatic event (i.e., nonclinical sample, n = 486) and those with a clinical diagnosis of a trauma- and/or stress-related disorder (i.e., posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], adjustment disorder, separation anxiety disorder, or grief; clinical sample, n = 54). Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a two-factor model (i.e., Intrusion/Arousal and Avoidance) provided a better fit than a three-factor model (i.e., Intrusion, Arousal, and Avoidance) and was found to be invariant across gender and age groups. The CRIES-13 showed good reliability for all subscales, with Cronbach’s alpha s > .79. Higher CRIES-13 scores were associated with poorer health and well-being and more internalizing and externalizing problems. The clinical sample presented with significantly higher CRIES-13 scores than the nonclinical sample, eta(2)(p) = .13. These results contribute to the cross-cultural validation of the CRIES-13 and support its use as a reliable and valid measure for assessing posttraumatic symptoms in children and adolescents.
As climate change increases the frequency and severity of disasters, and population and social changes raise the public’s vulnerability to disaster events, societies face additional risk of multiple disaster events or other hazards occurring simultaneously. Such hazards involve significant uncertainty, which must be translated into concrete plans able to be implemented by disaster workers. Little research has explored how disaster managers incorporate different forms of knowledge and uncertainty into preparations for simultaneous hazards or disaster events, or how front-line disaster workers respond to and implement these plans. In this paper I draw on ethnographic research working as a wildland firefighter, interviews with firefighters and fire managers, and state and agency planning documents to examine preparations for two events occurring in Central Oregon in August 2017: (1) the height of wildfire season and (2) hundreds of thousands of anticipated visitors for a total solar eclipse. I find that different qualities of risk, hazard, and uncertainty across these two events were central to the development and implementation of disaster plans. Agency leaders devised worst-case scenario plans for the eclipse based on uncertain predictions regarding hazards from the eclipse and the occurrence of severe wildfires, aiming to eliminate the potential for unknown hazards. These plans were generally met with skepticism by front-line disaster workers. Despite the uncertainties that dominated eclipse-planning rhetoric, firefighters largely identified risks from the eclipse that were risks they dealt with in their daily work as firefighters. I conclude by discussing implications of these findings for conceptual understandings of disaster planning as well as contemporary concerns about skepticism and conspiracy theories directed at government planning and response to disaster events.
During the summer of 2018 Sweden experienced a high occurrence of wildfires, most intense in the low-densely populated Jämtland Härjedalen region. The aim of this study was to investigate any short-term respiratory health effects due to deteriorated air quality generated by the smoke from wildfires. For each municipality in the region Jämtland Härjedalen, daily population-weighted concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM(2.5)) were calculated through the application of the MATCH chemistry transport model. Modelled levels of PM(2.5) were obtained for two summer periods (2017, 2018). Potential health effects of wildfire related levels of PM(2.5) were examined by studying daily health care contacts concerning respiratory problems in each municipality in a quasi-Poisson regression model, adjusting for long-term trends, weekday patterns and weather conditions. In the municipality most exposed to wildfire smoke, having 9 days with daily maximum 1-h mean of PM(2.5) > 20 ?g/m(3), smoke days resulted in a significant increase in daily asthma visits the same and two following days (relative risk (RR) = 2.64, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.28-5.47). Meta-estimates for all eight municipalities revealed statistically significant increase in asthma visits (RR = 1.68, 95% CI: 1.09-2.57) and also when grouping all disorders of the lower airways (RR = 1.40, 95% CI: 1.01-1.92).
In recent years, the frequency, intensity, and severity of wildfires have been on the rise due to various environmental factors. Several studies show that the strategic application of fuel treatments is effective at altering fire behavior and its spread patterns. Effective planning for mitigating future expected losses under wildfire risk is a complex challenge that requires the integration of fire spread, simulation, and optimization models as well as the inclusion of multiple objectives into a unified framework. Previous works simplify the analysis by valuing the landscape regions using a unique objective (e.g., minimize the average expected area burned) or a predefined objective function. However, such an assumption is a simplification of the real system as multiple parts of the landscape have different values based on factors such as the presence of human settlements and infrastructure, availability of environmental services, and forest health. In this work, we expand these previous attempts by providing an integrated framework to naturally include and weight multiple objectives into the optimization model and analyze the trade-off between present objectives and future protection against wildfire risk. We study three key regions based on their recent fire history, landscape diversity, and demographic variety to quantify the impact of multiple objectives in landscape management. We obtain treatment plans using various combinations of these layers reflecting how different priorities of the decision-makers could affect treatment policies.
People experiencing homelessness during the 2017-2018 California wildfires faced significant risks of disruption. Homeless service organizations (HSOs) are an essential safety net for this population. To learn about how HSOs performed during the wildfires, this study interviewed U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) staff overseeing HSOs providing transitional housing under the VA’s Grant and Per Diem (GPD) program to Veterans experiencing homelessness. We employed a comparative case study approach exploring GPD organizations’ disaster response actions, including evacuating Veterans from wildfire-affected areas or taking in disaster-displaced Veterans. This article presents three themes in the GPD organizations’ disaster response: (1) Organizations benefitted from close collaboration and communication with the VA during the disaster, creating a safety net to ensure Veterans’ well-being and enact rapid re-housing to prevent homelessness; (2) Organization staff performed heroically under stressful disaster conditions; and (3) Organizations benefitted from the written disaster plans that VA requires them to create, but were not as well-prepared for wildfires as they had been for earthquakes. As emergent threats such as the COVID-19 pandemic, wildfires, and a very active 2020 hurricane season amplify the importance of mitigating risks, comprehensive disaster planning is needed to ensure the safety and support of people experiencing homelessness.
In Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada, the wildfire of May 2016 forced the population of 88,000 to rapidly evacuate in a traumatic and chaotic manner. Ten percentage of the homes in the city were destroyed, and many more structures were damaged. Since youth are particularly vulnerable to negative effects of natural disasters, we examined possible long-term psychological impacts. To assess this, we partnered with Fort McMurray Public and Catholic Schools, who surveyed Grade 7-12 students (aged 11-19) in November 2017, 2018, and 2019-i.e., at 1.5, 2.5, and 3.5 years after the wildfire. The survey included validated measurement scales for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, drug use, alcohol use, tobacco use, quality of life, self-esteem, and resilience. Data analysis was done on large-scale anonymous surveys including 3,070 samples in 2017; 3,265 samples in 2018; and 3,041 samples in 2019. The results were unexpected and showed that all mental health symptoms increased from 2017 to 2019, with the exception of tobacco use. Consistent with this pattern, self-esteem and quality of life scores decreased. Resilience scores did not change significantly. Thus, mental health measures worsened, in contrast to our initial hypothesis that they would improve over time. Of note, we observed higher levels of mental health distress among older students, in females compared to male students, and in individuals with a minority gender identity, including transgender and gender-non-conforming individuals. These findings demonstrate that deleterious mental health effects can persist in youth for years following a wildfire disaster. This highlights the need for multi-year mental health support programs for youth in post-disaster situations. The indication that multi-year, post-disaster support is warranted is relatively novel, although not unknown. There is a need to systematically investigate factors associated with youth recovery following a wildfire disaster, as well as efficacy of psychosocial strategies during later phases of disaster recovery relative to early post-disaster interventions.
The impacts of wildfires in the western United States have been increasing for decades. Combining physical, epidemiological and economic models, this study finds that the economic damage of California wildfires in 2018 was roughly 1.5% of California’s annual gross domestic product. Recent increases in the frequency and scale of wildfires worldwide have raised concerns about the influence of climate change and associated socioeconomic costs. In the western United States, the hazard of wildfire has been increasing for decades. Here, we use a combination of physical, epidemiological and economic models to estimate the economic impacts of California wildfires in 2018, including the value of destroyed and damaged capital, the health costs related to air pollution exposure and indirect losses due to broader economic disruption cascading along with regional and national supply chains. Our estimation shows that wildfire damages in 2018 totalled $148.5 (126.1-192.9) billion (roughly 1.5% of California’s annual gross domestic product), with $27.7 billion (19%) in capital losses, $32.2 billion (22%) in health costs and $88.6 billion (59%) in indirect losses (all values in US$). Our results reveal that the majority of economic impacts related to California wildfires may be indirect and often affect industry sectors and locations distant from the fires (for example, 52% of the indirect losses-31% of total losses-in 2018 were outside of California). Our findings and methods provide new information for decision makers tasked with protecting lives and key production sectors and reducing the economic damages of future wildfires.
Introduction. Weather-related disasters, such as wildfires exacerbated by a rise in global temperatures, need to be better studied in terms of their mental health impacts. This study focuses on the mental health sequelae of the deadliest wildfire in California to date, the Camp Fire of 2018. Methods. We investigated a sample of 725 California residents with different degrees of disaster exposure and measured mental health using clinically validated scales for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Data were collected at a chronic time-point, six months post-wildfire. We used multiple regression analyses to predict the mental health outcomes based on self-reported fire exposure. Additionally, we included vulnerability and resilience factors in hierarchical regression analyses. Results. Our primary finding is that direct exposure to large scale fires significantly increased the risk for mental health disorders, particularly for PTSD and depression. Additionally, the inclusion of vulnerability and resilience factors in the hierarchical regression analyses led to the significantly improved prediction of all mental health outcomes. Childhood trauma and sleep disturbances exacerbated mental health symptoms. Notably, self-reported resilience had a positive effect on mental health, and mindfulness was associated with significantly lower depression and anxiety symptoms. Conclusion. Overall, our study demonstrated that climate-related extreme events, such as wildfires, can have severe mental illness sequelae. Moreover, we found that pre-existing stressful life events, resilient personality traits and lifestyle factors can play an important role in the prevalence of psychopathology after such disasters. Unchecked climate change projected for the latter half of this century may severely impact the mental wellbeing of the global population, and we must find ways to foster individual resiliency.
INTRODUCTION: Climate change presents unprecedented health threats. It is imperative that medical trainees understand the implications of climate change/planetary health on the physical and mental health and well-being of their patients. Medical professionals generally are not trained to consider climate change impacts in patient encounters. Hence, there is a need to train climate-aware providers who will be at the forefront of patient care in managing these current and emerging health impacts. METHODS: We created a standardized patient (SP) case enhanced with details of risks and health impacts due to exposure to wildfire smoke. This session was deployed to 11 internal medicine clerkship students as part of a standard OSCE already included in our curriculum to evaluate core clinical and communication skills. Two cohorts, a group activity, and a one-on-one encounter were deployed and followed with a faculty debrief and learner assessments. RESULTS: Students had increased awareness and knowledge of health impacts of climate change and potential actions for adaptation and mitigation. The improvements were statistically significant for the one-on-one cohort (p = .006). Postsimulation comments were favorable; students were more inclined to consider health impacts, risks, and vulnerabilities exacerbated by climate change. DISCUSSION: Students had an increased recognition of climate change as a force impacting their patients’ health which should be considered in patient care. This format allowed retention of well established curricular content, but also the inclusion of other crucial emerging issues that will impact public health locally and globally and foster the development of climate-aware health care providers.
Disastrous bushfires during the last months of 2019 and January 2020 affected Australia, raising the question to what extent the risk of these fires was exacerbated by anthropogenic climate change. To answer the question for southeastern Australia, where fires were particularly severe, affecting people and ecosystems, we use a physically based index of fire weather, the Fire Weather Index; long-term observations of heat and drought; and 11 large ensembles of state-of-the-art climate models. We find large trends in the Fire Weather Index in the fifth-generation European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Atmospheric Reanalysis (ERA5) since 1979 and a smaller but significant increase by at least 30% in the models. Therefore, we find that climate change has induced a higher weather-induced risk of such an extreme fire season. This trend is mainly driven by the increase of temperature extremes. In agreement with previous analyses we find that heat extremes have become more likely by at least a factor of 2 due to the long-term warming trend. However, current climate models overestimate variability and tend to underestimate the long-term trend in these extremes, so the true change in the like-lihood of extreme heat could be larger, suggesting that the attribution of the increased fire weather risk is a conservative estimate. We do not find an attributable trend in either extreme annual drought or the driest month of the fire season, September-February. The observations, however, show a weak drying trend in the annual mean. For the 2019/20 season more than half of the July-December drought was driven by record excursions of the Indian Ocean Dipole and Southern Annular Mode, factors which are included in the analysis here. The study reveals the complexity of the 2019/20 bushfire event, with some but not all drivers showing an imprint of anthropogenic climate change. Finally, the study concludes with a qualitative review of various vulnerability and expo- sure factors that each play a role, along with the hazard in increasing or decreasing the overall impact of the bushfires.
IMPORTANCE Air pollution is a worldwide public health issue that has been exacerbated by recent wildfires, but the relationship between wildfire-associated air pollution and inflammatory skin diseases is unknown. OBJECTIVE To assess the associations between wildfire-associated air pollution and clinic visits for atopic dermatitis (AD) or itch and prescribed medications for AD management. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This cross-sectional time-series study assessed the associations of air pollution resulting from the California Camp Fire in November 2018 and 8049 dermatology clinic visits (4147 patients) at an academic tertiary care hospital system in San Francisco, 175 miles from the wildfire source. Participants included pediatric and adult patients with AD or itch from before, during, and after the time of the fire (October 2018 through February 2019), compared with those with visits in the same time frame of 2015 and 2016, when no large wildfires were near San Francisco. Data analysis was conducted from November 1, 2019, to May 30, 2020. EXPOSURES Wildfire-associated air pollution was characterized using 3 metrics: fire status, concentration of particulate matter less than 2.5 mu m in diameter (PM2.5), and satellite-based smoke plume density scores. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Weekly clinic visit counts for AD or itch were the primary outcomes. Secondary outcomes were weekly numbers of topical and systemic medications prescribed for AD in adults. RESULTS Visits corresponding to a total of 4147 patients (mean [SD] age, 44.6 [21.1] years; 2322 [56%] female) were analyzed. The rates of visits for AD during the Camp Fire for pediatric patients were 1.49 (95% CI, 1.07-2.07) and for adult patients were 1.15 (95% CI, 1.02-1.30) times the rate for nonfire weeks at lag 0, adjusted for temperature, relative humidity, patient age, and total patient volume at the clinics for pediatric patients. The adjusted rate ratios for itch clinic visits during the wildfire weeks were 1.82 (95% CI, 1.20-2.78) for the pediatric patients and 1.29 (95% CI, 0.96-1.75) for adult patients. A 10-mu g/m(3) increase in weekly mean PM2.5 concentration was associated with a 7.7% (95% CI, 1.9%-13.7%) increase in weekly pediatric itch clinic visits. The adjusted rate ratio for prescribed systemic medications in adults during the Camp Fire at lag 0 was 1.45 (95% CI, 1.03-2.05). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE This cross-sectional study found that short-term exposure to air pollution due to the wildfire was associated with increased health care use for patients with AD and itch. These results may provide a better understanding of the association between poor air quality and skin health and guide health care professionals’ counseling of patients with skin disease and public health practice.
OBJECTIVE: The wildfire allied environmental pollution is highly toxic and can cause significant wide-ranging damage to the regional environment, weather conditions, and it can facilitate the transmission of microorganisms and diseases. The present study aims to investigate the effect of wildfire allied pollutants, particulate matter (PM-2.5 ?m), and carbon monoxide (CO) on the dynamics of daily cases and deaths due to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection in San Francisco, USA. MATERIALS AND METHODS: For this study, we selected San Francisco, one of the regions affected by the wildfires allied pollution in California, USA. The data on the COVID-19 pandemic in San Francisco, including daily new cases and new deaths were recorded from Worldometer Web. The daily environmental pollutants particulate matter (PM-2.5 ?m) and carbon monoxide (CO) were recorded from the metrological web “BAAQMD”. The daily cases, deaths, particulate matter (PM-2.5 ?m) and carbon monoxide were documented from the date of the occurrence of the first case of (SARS-CoV-2) in San Francisco, CA, USA, from March 20, 2020 to Sept 16, 2020. RESULTS: The results revealed a significant positive correlation between the environmental pollutants particulate matter (PM2.5 ?m) and the number of daily cases (r=0.203, p=0.007), cumulative cases (r=0.567, p<0.001) and cumulative deaths (r=0.562, p<0.001); whereas the PM2.5 ?m and daily deaths had no relationship (r=-0.015, p=0.842). In addition, CO was also positively correlated with cumulative cases (r=0.423, p<0.001) and cumulative deaths (r=0.315, p<0.001), however, CO had no correlation with the number of daily cases (r=0.134, p=0.075) and daily deaths (r=0.030, p=0.693). In San Francisco, one micrometer (?g/m3) increase in PM2.5 caused an increase in the daily cases, cumulative cases and cumulative deaths of SARS-COV-2 by 0.5%, 0.9% and 0.6%, respectively. Moreover, with a 1 part per million (ppm) increase in carbon monoxide level, the daily number of cases, cumulative cases and cumulative deaths increased by 5%, 9.3% and 5.3%, respectively. On the other hand, CO and daily deaths had no significant relationship. CONCLUSIONS: The wildfire allied pollutants, particulate matter PM-2.5?m and CO have a positive association with an increased number of SARS-COV-2 daily cases, cumulative cases and cumulative deaths in San Francisco. The metrological, disaster management and health officials must implement the necessary policies and assist in planning to minimize the wildfire incidences, environmental pollution and COVID-19 pandemic both at regional and international levels.
We estimate the effects of wildfire smoke exposure on infant health. Exposure to wildfire smoke is determined using the latitude and longitude coordinates corresponding to each infant’s home address and a fine-scaled spatial dataset of wildfire smoke plumes constructed in GIS from satellite images of the landscape. Using a difference-in-differences estimation strategy, model estimates show that exposure to wildfire smoke leads to a .034 increase in the probability of low birthweight.
Objective: The study examines how wildfire smoke exposure may impact health and safety in the agricultural workplace. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with agricultural employers and focus group discussions were held with farmworkers in three regions of California. Results: Agricultural employers had varying knowledge about and experience responding to poor air quality due to wildfire smoke. Respirators or masks were not mentioned as a potential protective measure when describing their safety practices. Farmworkers reported experiencing poor air quality due to wildfire smoke, although knowledge of safety precautions varied. Farmworkers reported employer and supervisors’ attitudes toward safety as having the greatest impact on the implementation of workplace safety measures. Conclusion: Adapting health promotion and workplace safety strategies to meet the multiple vulnerabilities and diverse needs of farmworkers is critical to successful implementation of workplace protection and safety measures. Given limited familiarity with the topic, wildfire smoke exposure resources are needed to assist employers and supervisors in their compliance with a new wildfire smoke safety regulation in California. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to explore agricultural employer and farmworker perceptions of the health and safety impacts of wildfire smoke and workplace exposure.
The air quality and human health impacts of wildfires depend on fire, meteorology, and demography. These properties vary substantially from one region to another in China. This study compared smoke from more than a dozen wildfires in Northeast, North, and Southwest China to understand the regional differences in smoke transport and the air quality and human health impacts. Smoke was simulated using the Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory Model (HYSPLIT) with fire emissions obtained from the Global Fire Emission Database (GFED). Although the simulated PM2.5 concentrations reached unhealthy or more severe levels at regional scale for some largest fires in Northeast China, smoke from only one fire was transported to densely populated areas (population density greater than 100 people/km(2)). In comparison, the PM2.5 concentrations reached unhealthy level in local densely populated areas for a few fires in North and Southwest China, though they were very low at regional scale. Thus, individual fires with very large sizes in Northeast China had a large amount of emissions but with a small chance to affect air quality in densely populated areas, while those in North and Southwest China had a small amount of emissions but with a certain chance to affect local densely populated areas. The results suggest that the fire and air quality management should focus on the regional air quality and human health impacts of very large fires under southward/southeastward winds toward densely populated areas in Northeast China and local air pollution near fire sites in North and Southwest China.
Communities worldwide will increasingly be called upon to bear the burden of the direct impact of climate change, and also the externalities associated with avoiding the worst. This begs the question: How do we protect the well-being of populations living with climate impacts without causing unintentional harm via poorly planned or managed adaptation actions? This Perspective presenting an exploratory pilot study surveyed populations affected by the historic and unprecedented widespread public safety power shutoffs (PSPS) to mitigate the risk of wildfires by Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) and Southern California Edison (SCE) in October and November 2019 that left millions without power. The results suggest that PSPS likely represents a ‘looming threat’ that is associated with reported poorer recent physical and mental health, exacerbated by self-reported trauma lingering from previous experience with wildfires, especially among the most vulnerable. This threat is apparently most acute in northern California, where people experienced greater widespread shutoffs, more recent experience with devastating wildfires, and expressed anger toward how their utility contributed and responded to recent wildfires. Despite this, people are largely supportive of PSPS as an important way to reduce the bigger risk of wildfires, even as they report suffering from this adaptation measure. These results suggest that people understand and are sympathetic regarding the need for PSPS; yet without holistic consideration of the consequences of climate adaptation, unintended health impacts may arise.
The aim of the paper is to describe the spread forest fire event occurred in the Italian Alps in 2017 under extremely drought conditions. In the study the root causes of wildfires and their direct relapses to the air quality of the Western Po valley and the urban centre of Torino have been assessed by means of air pollution measurements (focused to particulate matter with reference samplers and optical particle counters OPCs), meteorological indicators and additional public data. Results show a good correlation among different urban sites and instrument technologies. Concentration data, compared with environmental conditions and historical values describe the clear impact of fires on both local and regional air quality. Indeed, the deferred impact of wildfires on the local wood biomass energy supply chain is briefly outlined. (C) 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Objectives. To examine the impact of extreme heat on emergency services in Boston, MA.Methods. We conducted relative risk and time series analyses of 911 dispatches of the Boston Police Department (BPD), Boston Emergency Medical Services (BEMS), and Boston Fire Department (BFD) from November 2010 to April 2014 to assess the impact of extreme heat on emergency services.Results. During the warm season, there were 2% (95% confidence interval [CI]?=?0%, 5%) more BPD dispatches, 9% (95% CI?=?7%, 12%) more BEMS dispatches, and 10% (95% CI?=?5%, 15%) more BFD dispatches on days when the maximum temperature was 90°F or higher, which remained consistent when we considered multiple days of heat. A 10°F increase in daily maximum temperature, from 80° to 90°F, resulted in 1.016, 1.017, and 1.002 times the expected number of daily BPD, BEMS, and BFD dispatch calls, on average, after adjustment for other predictors.Conclusions. The burden of extreme heat on local emergency medical and police services may be agency-wide, and impacts on fire departments have not been previously documented.Public Health Implications. It is important to account for the societal burden of extreme heat impacts to most effectively inform climate change adaptation strategies and planning.
The relationship between the fires occurrences and diseases is an essential issue for making public health policy and environment protecting strategy. Thanks to the Internet, today, we have a huge amount of health data and fire occurrence reports at our disposal. The challenge, therefore, is how to deal with 4 Vs (volume, variety, velocity and veracity) associated with these data. To overcome this problem, in this paper, we propose a method that combines techniques based on Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery from Databases (KDD) to discover spatial and temporal association between diseases and the fire occurrences. Here, the case study was addressed to Malaria, Leishmaniasis and respiratory diseases in Brazil. Instead of losing a lot of time verifying the consistency of the database, the proposed method uses Decision Tree, a machine learning-based supervised classification, to perform a fast management and extract only relevant and strategic information, with the knowledge of how reliable the database is. Namely, States, Biomes and period of the year (months) with the highest rate of fires could be identified with great success rates and in few seconds. Then, the K-means, an unsupervised learning algorithms that solves the well-known clustering problem, is employed to identify the groups of cities where the fire occurrences is more expressive. Finally, the steps associated with KDD is perfomed to extract useful information from mined data. In that case, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, a nonparametric measure of rank correlation, is computed to infer the statistical dependence between fire occurrences and those diseases. Moreover, maps are also generated to represent the distribution of the mined data. From the results, it was possible to identify that each region showed a susceptible behaviour to some disease as well as some degree of correlation with fire outbreak, mainly in the drought period.
This study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Child Post-Traumatic Cognitions Inventory (CPTCI) in a sample of Portuguese children and adolescents, following the exposition to a wildfire disaster. The sample included 533 children and adolescents living in regions exposed to the wildfire disaster (non-clinical sample: n = 483; clinical sample: n = 50). The short form of the instrument (CPTCI-SF) including two correlated factors (‘Sense of Disturbing and Permanent Change’ and ‘Sense of Being a Fragile Person in a Scary World’) showed good model fit and was invariant across gender and age-groups. Good internal consistency (> .70) was found, and higher CPTCI scores were associated with poorer adjustment indicators. The clinical sample presented significantly higher CPTCI scores than the non-clinical sample. These results contribute to the cross-cultural validation of the CPTCI and support the adequacy of its short form as a reliable and valid measure to be used with Portuguese children and adolescents.
The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire-Kids (CERQ-Kids) is a self-report questionnaire that assesses cognitive emotional regulation strategies that children may employ when they face traumatic or stressful events. However, its psychometric properties were only analyzed among participants from the general community. The goal of this study is to examine the factor structure of the Portuguese CERQ-Kids and to explore its psychometric properties in a sample of children/adolescents exposed to a potentially traumatic event (wildfires). The sample included 488 children/adolescents (Mage = 13.02, SD = 2.5, range = 8-17) who lived in the areas affected by the 2017 Portugal wildfires and who did not receive a diagnosis of a mental disorder, and a clinical group of 50 children/adolescents (Mage = 12, SD = 2.62, range = 8-16) who lived in the same areas and who were diagnosed with a mental disorder. All participants completed the CERQ-Kids and measures of emotion regulation strategies, mental health, and quality of life. The best fitting model was the original nine-factor correlated model. This model was invariant across gender and age groups. With the exception of the Acceptance subscale, the remaining subscales presented adequate internal consistency. Participants from the clinical group scored higher on Self-blame, Rumination, Catastrophizing, and Acceptance than participants from the non-clinical group. Significant correlations were found between the CERQ-Kids subscales and measures of cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, prosocial behavior, mental health, and quality of life. The Portuguese version of the CERQ-Kids proved to be a psychometrically adequate measure of cognitive emotion regulation strategies that children and adolescents may use when exposed to a potentially traumatic event.
In October 2017, hundreds of wildfires ravaged the forests of the north and centre of Portugal. The fires were fanned by strong winds as tropical storm Ophelia swept the Iberian coast, dragging up smoke (together with Saharan dust from north-western Africa) into higher western European latitudes. Here we analyse the long-range transport of particulate matter (PM(10)) and study associations between PM(10) and short-term mortality in the Portuguese population exposed to PM(10) due to the October 2017 wildfires, the worst fire sequence in the country over the last decades. We analysed space- and ground-level observations to track the smoke plume and dust trajectory over Portugal and Europe, and to access PM(10) concentrations during the wildfires. The effects of PM(10) on mortality were evaluated using satellite data for exposure and Poisson regression models. The smoke plume covered most western European countries (including Spain, France, Belgium and the Netherlands), and reached the United Kingdom, where the population was exposed in average to an additional PM(10) level of 11.7 µg/m(3) during seven smoky days (three with dust) in relation to the reference days (days without smoke or dust), revealing the impact of the wildfires on distant populations. In Portugal, the population was exposed in average to additional PM(10) levels that varied from 16.2 to 120.6 µg/m(3) in smoky days with dust and from 6.1 to 20.9 µg/m(3) in dust-free smoky days. Results suggest that PM(10) had a significant effect on the same day natural and cardiorespiratory mortalities during the month of October 2017. For every additional 10 µg/m(3) of PM(10), there was a 0.89% (95% confidence interval, CI, 0-1.77%) increase in the number of natural deaths and a 2.34% (95% CI, 0.99-3.66%) increase in the number of cardiorespiratory-related deaths. With rising temperatures and a higher frequency of storms due to climate change, PM from Iberian wildfires together with NW African dust will tend to be more often transported into Northern European countries, which may carry health threats to areas far from the ignition sites.
Background The natural cycle of large-scale wildfires is accelerating, increasingly exposing both rural and populous urban areas to wildfire emissions. While respiratory health effects associated with wildfire smoke are well established, cardiovascular effects have been less clear. Methods and Results We examined the association between out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and wildfire smoke density (light, medium, heavy smoke) from the National Oceanic Atmospheric Association’s Hazard Mapping System. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest data were provided by the Cardiac Arrest Registry to Enhance Survival for 14 California counties, 2015-2017 (N=5336). We applied conditional logistic regression in a case-crossover design using control days from 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks before case date, at lag days 0 to 3. We stratified by pathogenesis, sex, age (19-34, 35-64, and >= 65 years), and socioeconomic status (census tract percent below poverty). Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest risk increased in association with heavy smoke across multiple lag days, strongest on lag day 2 (odds ratio, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.18-2.13). Risk in the lower socioeconomic status strata was elevated on medium and heavy days, although not statistically significant. Higher socioeconomic status strata had elevated odds ratios with heavy smoke but null results with light and medium smoke. Both sexes and age groups 35 years and older were impacted on days with heavy smoke. Conclusions Out-of-hospital cardiac arrests increased with wildfire smoke exposure, and lower socioeconomic status appeared to increase the risk. The future trajectory of wildfire, along with increasing vulnerability of the aging population, underscores the importance of formulating public health and clinical strategies to protect those most vulnerable.
Background Wildfire events are increasing in prevalence in the western United States. Research has found mixed results on the degree to which exposure to wildfire smoke is associated with an increased risk of mortality. Methods We tested for an association between exposure to wildfire smoke and non-traumatic mortality in Washington State, USA. We characterized wildfire smoke days as binary for grid cells based on daily average PM2.5 concentrations, from June 1 through September 30, 2006-2017. Wildfire smoke days were defined as all days with assigned monitor concentration above a PM2.5 value of 20.4 mu g/m(3), with an additional set of criteria applied to days between 9 and 20.4 mu g/m(3). We employed a case-crossover study design using conditional logistic regression and time-stratified referent sampling, controlling for humidex. Results The odds of all-ages non-traumatic mortality with same-day exposure was 1.0% (95% CI: – 1.0 – 4.0%) greater on wildfire smoke days compared to non-wildfire smoke days, and the previous day’s exposure was associated with a 2.0% (95% CI: 0.0-5.0%) increase. When stratified by cause of mortality, odds of same-day respiratory mortality increased by 9.0% (95% CI: 0.0-18.0%), while the odds of same-day COPD mortality increased by 14.0% (95% CI: 2.0-26.0%). In subgroup analyses, we observed a 35.0% (95% CI: 9.0-67.0%) increase in the odds of same-day respiratory mortality for adults ages 45-64. Conclusions This study suggests increased odds of mortality in the first few days following wildfire smoke exposure. It is the first to examine this relationship in Washington State and will help inform local and state risk communication efforts and decision-making during future wildfire smoke events.
Background Wildfires are increasingly a significant source of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which has been linked to adverse health effects and increased mortality. ESKD patients are potentially susceptible to this environmental stressor. Methods We conducted a retrospective time-series analysis of the association between daily exposure to wildfire PM2.5 and mortality in 253 counties near a major wildfire between 2008 and 2012. Using quasi-Poisson regression models, we estimated rate ratios (RRs) for all-cause mortality on the day of exposure and up to 30 days following exposure, adjusted for background PM2.5, day of week, seasonality, and heat. We stratified the analysis by causes of death (cardiac, vascular, infectious, or other) and place of death (clinical or nonclinical setting) for differential PM2.5 exposure and outcome classification. Results We found 48,454 deaths matched to the 253 counties. A 10-mu g/m(3) increase in wildfire PM2.5 associated with a 4% increase in all-cause mortality on the same day (RR, 1.04; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.01 to 1.07) and 7% increase cumulatively over 30 days following exposure (RR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.12). Risk was elevated following exposure for deaths occurring in nonclinical settings (RR, 1.07; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.12), suggesting modification of exposure by place of death. “Other” deaths (those not attributed to cardiac, vascular, or infectious causes) accounted for the largest portion of deaths and had a strong same-day effect (RR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.03 to 1.12) and cumulative effect over the 30-day period. On days with a wildfire PM2.5 contribution >10 mu g/m(3), exposure accounted for 8.4% of mortality. Conclusions Wildfire smoke exposure was positively associated with all-cause mortality among patients receiving in-center hemodialysis.
The effects of atmospheric black carbon (BC) on climate and public health have been well established, but large uncertainties remain regarding the extent of the impacts of BC at different temporal and spatial scales. These uncertainties are largely due to the heterogeneous nature of BC in terms of its spatiotemporal distribution, mixing state, and coating composition. Here, we seek to further understand the size and mixing state of BC emitted from various sources and aged over different timescales using field measurements in the Los Angeles region. We measured refractory black carbon (rBC) with a single-particle soot photometer (SP2) on Catalina Island, California (similar to 70 km southwest of downtown Los Angeles) during three different time periods. During the first campaign (September 2017), westerly winds were dominant and measured air masses were representative of wellaged background over the Pacific Ocean. In the second and third campaigns (December 2017 and November 2018, respectively), atypical Santa Ana wind conditions allowed us to measure biomass burning rBC (BCbb) from air masses dominated by large biomass burning events in California and fossil fuel rBC (BCff) from the Los Angeles Basin. We observed that the emissions source type heavily influenced both the size distribution of the rBC cores and the rBC mixing state. BCbb had thicker coatings and larger core diameters than BBff. We observed a mean coating thickness (CTBc) of similar to 40-70 nm and a count mean diameter (CMD) of similar to 120 nm for BCbb. For BCff, we observed a CTBc of similar to 5-15 nm and a CMD of similar to 100 nm. Our observations also provided evidence that aging led to an increased CTBc for both BCbb and BCff . Aging timescales < similar to 1 d were insufficient to thickly coat freshly emitted BCff. However, CTBc for aged B-ff within aged background plumes was similar to 35 nm thicker than CTBc for fresh BCff. Likewise, we found that CTBc for aged BCbb was similar to 18 nm thicker than CTBc for fresh BCbb. The results presented in this study highlight the wide variability in the BC mixing state and provide additional evidence that the emissions source type and aging influence rBC microphysical properties.
Central to public health risk communication is understanding the perspectives and shared values among individuals who need the information. Using the responses from a Smoke Sense citizen science project, we examined perspectives on the issue of wildfire smoke as a health risk in relation to an individual’s preparedness to adopt recommended health behaviors. The Smoke Sense smartphone application provides wildfire-related health risk resources and invites participants to record their perspectives on the issue of wildfire smoke. Within the app, participants can explore current and forecasted daily air quality, maps of fire locations, satellite images of smoke plumes, and learn about health consequences of wildfire smoke. We used cluster analysis to identify perspective trait-clusters based on health status, experience with fire smoke, risk perception, self-efficacy, access to exposure-reducing resources, health information needs, and openness to health risk messaging. Differences between traits were examined based on demographics, health status, activity level and engagement with the app. We mapped these traits to the Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) to indicate where each trait lies in adopting recommended health behaviors. Finally, we suggest messaging strategies that may be suitable for each trait. We determined five distinct perspective traits which included individuals who were Protectors and have decided to engage on the issue by adopting new behaviors to protect their health; Cautious, Proactive, and Susceptible individuals who were at a Deciding stage but differed based on risk perceptions and information needs; and the Unengaged who did not perceive smoke as a health issue and were unlikely to change behavior in response to messaging. Across all five traits, the level of engagement and information needs differed substantially, but were not defined by demographics. Individuals in the Susceptible trait had the highest level of engagement and the highest information needs. Messaging that emphasizes self-efficacy and benefits of reducing exposure may be effective in motivating individuals from the deciding stage to taking health protective action. Shared perspectives define an individual’s propensity for acting on recommended health behaviors, therefore, health risk message content should be tailored based on these perspectives.
Objectives To assess the likely prevalence rates of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in staff of Fort McMurray School Districts eighteen months after a May 2016 wildfire, and to determine possible predictors. Methods A quantitative cross-sectional survey was used to collect data through self-administered online questionnaires to determine likely MDD, GAD and PTSD using well validated self-report questionnaires. Results Of 1,446 staff who were sent the online survey link in an e-mail, 197 completed the survey, of which there were 168 females (85%) and 29 males (15%). The one-month prevalence rates for likely MDD, GAD and PTSD among the school staff were 18.3, 15.7 and 10.2% respectively. There were statistically significant associations between multiple socio-demographic and clinical variables likely MDD, GAD and PTSD among respondents. Conclusion Knowledge of key factors for MDD, GAD and PTSD may be helpful for policy makers when formulating population level social and clinical programs, to mitigate the mental health effects of future natural disasters.
Rationale: There is significant evidence of increased healthcare utilization from cardiopulmonary causes in adults from exposure to wildfire smoke, but evidence in pediatric age groups is limited.Objectives: To quantify and examine the healthcare utilization effects of the December 2017 Lilac Fire in San Diego County among pediatric patients at the Rady Children’s Hospital (RCH) emergency department and urgent care (UC) clinics.Methods: Using data from 2011 to 2017, including data on daily particulate matter <2.5 ?m (PM(2.5)) in an inverse-distance interpolation model and RCH electronic medical records, we retrospectively analyzed pediatric respiratory visits at the RCH emergency department and UC clinics during the Santa Ana wind (SAW)-driven Lilac Fire from December 7 to 16, 2017. An interrupted time series study design was applied as our primary analysis to compare the observed pediatric respiratory visits from December 7 to 16, 2017 to what would have occurred in a counterfactual situation, namely, if the Lilac Fire had not occurred. A complementary descriptive spatial analysis was also used to evaluate the geographic distribution of respiratory visits in relationship to satellite imaging of the Lilac Fire and the associated wind pattern.Results: The Lilac Fire was associated with 16.0 (95% confidence interval [CI], 11.2-20.9) excess respiratory visits per day at the RCH emergency department across all pediatric age groups. Children aged 0 to 5 years had the highest absolute excess respiratory visits per day with 7.3 (95% CI, 3.0-11.7), whereas those aged 6 to 12 years had the highest relative increase in visits, with 3.4 (95% CI, 2.3-4.6). RCH UC clinics had similar results. The top five ZIP codes in San Diego County with the highest standard deviations of age-adjusted respiratory visits were all located generally downwind of the fire perimeter, as expected for the SAW pattern.Conclusions: We have demonstrated an increase in pediatric respiratory visits during the SAW-driven Lilac Fire in San Diego County in a patterned geographic distribution that is attributable to an increase in PM(2.5) exposure. Younger children were particularly affected. Climate change is expected to result in more frequent and extensive wildfires in the region and will require greater preparedness and adaptation efforts to protect vulnerable populations, such as young children.
Background: Air pollution is a global problem and also linked to respiratory diseases. Wildfire smog is a major cause of air pollution in the upper northern area of Thailand. Thus, in the current study, we examined whether long-term exposure to wildfire smog induces lung function changes in a population from the upper northern area of Thailand. Methods: The lung function of 115 participants with long-term exposure smog was determined using peak flow meter. Results: Long-term smoke exposure participants decreased FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in 1 second)/FVC (forced vital capacity) ratio (56.49 +/- 23.88 in males and 56.29 +/- 28.23 in females) compared with general Thai population. Moreover, the reduction of FVC, FEV1, and peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) values also showed in both male and female subjects. These results suggest that long-term smoke exposure induces obstructive lung abnormality. Moreover, itchy/watery nose, cough, phlegm, and chest pain also reported in these subjects. Conclusion: Wildfire smog could be induced respiratory pathway inflammation and easily collapsible respiratory airways.
The worst disaster of natural origin in recent Canadian history occurred in May 2016 in the northern Alberta community of Fort McMurray Wood Buffalo (FMWB). Among the 88,000 people abruptly evacuated amidst a raging wildfire were approximately 1850 pregnant or pre-conception women. Based on the Allostatic Load and Preterm Birth Conceptual Framework (Olson et al., 2015) [1], a simple, cost-effective expressive writing intervention following Pennebaker’s work (Pennebaker and Beall, 1986; Pennebaker et al., 2007) [2,3] was implemented in a primary study to help mitigate the negative effects of stress on a sample of these women and their unborn children. Journal writing served as an intervention in the primary study while the contents of the journal entries became the data analyzed in this qualitative study. This study utilized both inductive and deductive thematic analysis of journal entries completed by 54 women over four consecutive days (15 min/day). Deductive analysis followed a coding structure that was generated from two resilience scales. Themes that emerged during inductive analysis were also coded. The main themes that emerged described the women’s challenging experiences: fears for themselves and their offspring, fire-related and past trauma, and relationship changes. Resilience characteristics and practices also emerged from the writings and mirrored those found in the literature: (a) posttraumatic growth, (b) adaptability, (c) emotional/social connectedness, (d) composure, and (e) reasoning. This paper highlights the challenging experiences of pregnant women exposed to a disaster and the resilience they demonstrated in the face of the tragedy.
Wildfires have a significant adverse impact on air quality in the United States (US). To understand the potential health impacts of wildfire smoke, many epidemiology studies rely on concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM) as a smoke tracer. However, there are many gas-phase hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that are also present in wildfire smoke plumes. Using observations from the Western Wildfire Experiment for Cloud Chemistry, Aerosol Absorption, and Nitrogen (WE-CAN), a 2018 aircraft-based field campaign that measured HAPs and PM in western US wildfire smoke plumes, we identify the relationships between HAPs and associated health risks, PM, and smoke age. We find the ratios between acute, chronic noncancer, and chronic cancer HAPs health risk and PM in smoke decrease as a function of smoke age by up to 72% from fresh (<1 day of aging) to old (>3 days of aging) smoke. We show that acrolein, formaldehyde, benzene, and hydrogen cyanide are the dominant contributors to gas-phase HAPs risk in smoke plumes. Finally, we use ratios of HAPs to PM along with annual average smoke-specific PM to estimate current and potential future smoke HAPs risks.
Smoke from wildfires contains many air pollutants of concern and epidemiological studies have identified associations between exposure to wildfire smoke PM(2.5) and mortality and respiratory morbidity, and a possible association with cardiovascular morbidity. For this study, a retrospective analysis of air quality modelling was performed to quantify the exposure to wildfire-PM(2.5) across the Canadian population. The model included wildfire emissions from across North America for a 5-month period from May to September (i.e. wildfire season), between 2013 and 2015 and 2017-2018. Large variations in wildfire-PM(2.5) were noted year-to-year, geospatially, and within fire season. The model results were then used to estimate the national population health impacts attributable to wildfire-PM(2.5) and the associated economic valuation. The analysis estimated annual premature mortalities ranging from 54-240 premature mortalities attributable to short-term exposure and 570-2500 premature mortalities attributable to long-term exposure, as well as many non-fatal cardiorespiratory health outcomes. The economic valuation of the population health impacts was estimated per year at $410M-$1.8B for acute health impacts and $4.3B-$19B for chronic health impacts for the study period. The health impacts were greatest in the provinces with populations in close proximity to wildfire activity, though health impacts were also noted across many provinces indicating the long-range transport of wildfire-PM(2.5). Understanding the population health impacts of wildfire smoke is important as climate change is anticipated to increase wildfire activity in Canada and abroad.
Exposure to wildfire smoke causes adverse health outcomes, suggesting the importance of accurately estimating smoke concentrations. Geostatistical methods can combine observed, modeled, and satellite-derived concentrations to produce accurate estimates. Here, we estimate daily average ground-level PM2.5 concentrations at a 1 km resolution during the October 2017 California wildfires, using the Constant Air Quality Model Performance (CAMP) and Bayesian Maximum Entropy (BME) methods to bias-correct and fuse three concentration datasets: permanent and temporary monitoring stations, a chemical transport model (CTM), and satellite-derived estimates. Four BME space/time kriging and data fusion methods were evaluated. All BME methods produce more accurate estimates than the standalone CTM and satellite products. Adding temporary station data increases the R-2 by 36%. The data fusion of observations with the CAMP-corrected CTM and satellite-derived concentrations provides the best estimate (R-2 = 0.713) in fire-impacted regions, emphasizing the importance of combining multiple datasets. We estimate that approximately 65,000 people were exposed to very unhealthy air (daily average PM2.5 >= 150.5 mu g/m(3)).
Wildfires are an important ecological threat in Cote d’Ivoire with the northern half the most affected zone. This study assessed farmers’ perception of wildfire occurrence in the N’Zi River Watershed and compared this perception to remotely sensed fire data trends. To this end, 259 farmers were individually interviewed and 18 farmers were involved in three focus group discussions in three agro-ecological zones. A combination of descriptive statistics and regression analysis was used for data analysis. Results showed that 78.75% of farmers observed the upward trend in the annual wildfire activity identified by remote sensing data during 2001-2016. Most of the respondents identified hunting (65.83%), farm establishment (50%) and firebreaks establishment (46.67%) as main causes of wildfires. The perceived impacts of wildfires included immediate crop burning, crop growth delaying, mid-term post-fire crop destruction, destruction of material goods and loss of human life. Local population developed endogenous strategies to cope with this scourge. Amongst identified coping strategies, firebreaks establishment and maintenance around new clearings and farms and prohibition of fire-hunting during the dry season were highlighted. Therefore, policies and institutions that support local wildfires management initiatives must take advantage of the strong community knowledge and networks to strengthen their effectiveness and sustainability.
Wildfires, which are becoming more frequent and intense in many countries, pose serious threats to human health. To determine health impacts and provide public health messaging, satellite-based smoke plume data are sometimes used as a proxy for directly measured particulate matter levels. We collected data on particulate matter <2.5 mu m in diameter (PM2.5) concentration from 16 ground-level monitoring stations in the San Francisco Bay Area and smoke plume density from satellite imagery for the 2017-2018 California wildfire seasons. We tested for trends and calculated bootstrapped differences in the median PM2.5 concentrations by plume density category on a 0-3 scale. The median PM2.5 concentrations for categories 0, 1, 2, and 3 were 16, 22, 25, and 63 mu g/m(3), respectively, and there was much variability in PM2.5 concentrations within each category. A case study of the Camp Fire illustrates that in San Francisco, PM2.5 concentrations reached their maximum many days after the peak for plume density scores. We found that air pollution characterization by satellite imagery did not precisely align with ground-level PM2.5 concentrations. Public health practitioners should recognize the need to combine multiple sources of data regarding smoke patterns when developing public guidance to limit the health effects of wildfire smoke.
