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Countries | Antigua and Barbuda

WHO / UNFCCC Climate & Health Profile 2020

National Context

Country Background

Antigua and Barbuda is a Small Island Developing State (SIDS) in the Caribbean Sea (1). The climate is tropical maritime, wet and dry, with minimal seasonal variation except for the hurricane season, which runs from approximately June to November (1,2). Tourism is the country’s dominant sector, accounting for around 80% of GDP and approximately 70% of employment; the sustainability of this sector is largely reliant upon Antigua and Barbuda’s natural resources (1).

As a SIDS, Antigua and Barbuda is considered highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, including sea level rise, increasing temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events. Human health and well-being are also threatened by climate change, with particular threats being water insecurity (due to saltwater intrusion of freshwater aquifers); economic insecurity; heat stress; spread of vectorborne, waterborne and foodborne diseases; and death and injury from extreme weather events. With the country’s economy being so reliant on tourism, threats to Antigua and Barbuda’s natural environment and infrastructure could have serious implications for the country’s economy and thus the social and economic development of its population.

The Government of Antigua and Barbuda recognizes the current and future threats of climate change and is working to adapt to these impacts. The water sector has been identified as a priority for adaptation, owing to risks of decreasing freshwater supply and saltwater intrusion of aquifers (1). In 2015, the government of Antigua and Barbuda published its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). Its NDC highlights the threats to the health sector, particularly due to the spread of vector-borne and waterborne diseases; in response, the government has committed to protecting all waterways, to reduce flood risk and protect human health, by 2030. Furthermore, the health co-benefits of mitigation and adaptation are recognized (3).

Highest Priority Climate Sensitive Health Risks

Climate Hazards Relevant for Health

Climate Hazard Projections for Antigua and Barbuda

Country-specific projections are outlined up to the year 2100 for climate hazards under a ‘business as usual’ high emissions scenario compared to projections under a ‘two-degree’ scenario with rapidly decreasing global emissions (see Figures 1–5). The climate model projections given below present climate hazards under a high emissions scenario, Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5 – in orange) and a low emissions scenario (RCP2.6 – in green). 1 1Model projections are from CMIP5 for RCP8.5 (high emissions) and RCP2.6 (low emissions). Model anomalies are added to the historical mean and smoothed.

The text describes the projected changes averaged across about 20 global climate models (thick line). The figures 2 2Analysis by the Climatic Research Unit, University of East Anglia, 2018. also show each model individually as well as the 90% model range (shaded) as a measure of uncertainty and the annual and smoothed observed record (in blue).3 3Observed historical record of mean temperature is from CRU-TSv3.26 and total precipitation is from GPCC. Observed historical records of extremes are from JRA55 for temperature and from GPCC-FDD for precipitation. In the following text the present-day baseline refers to the 30-year average for 1981–2010 and the end-of-century refers to the 30-year average for 2071–2100.

Modelling uncertainties associated with the relatively coarse spatial scale of the models compared with that of small island States are not explicitly represented. There are also issues associated with the availability and representativeness of observed data for such locations.

Mean annual temperature, 1900–2100 for Antigua and Barbuda
FIGURE 1: Mean annual temperature, 1900–2100

Under a high emissions scenario, the mean annual temperature is projected to rise by about 2.8°C on average by the end-of-century (i.e. 2071–2100 compared with 1981–2010). If emissions decrease rapidly, the temperature rise is limited to about 0.9°C.

Total annual precipitation, 1900–2100 in Antigua and Barbuda
FIGURE 2: Total annual precipitation, 1900–2100

Total annual precipitation is projected to decrease by about 20% on average under a high emissions scenario, although the uncertainty range is large (-48% to +6%). If emissions decrease rapidly there is little projected change on average: with a decrease of 3% and an uncertainty range of -17% to +7%.

FIGURE 3: Percentage of hot days (‘heat stress’), 1900–2100

The percentage of hot days  4 4A ‘hot day’ (‘hot night’) is a day when maximum (minimum) temperature exceeds the 90th percentile threshold for that time of the year. is projected to increase substantially from about 25% of all observed days on average in 1981–2010 (10% in 1961–1990). Under a high emissions scenario, almost 100% of days on average are defined as ‘hot’ by the end of century. If emissions decrease rapidly, about 85% of days on average are ‘hot’. Note that the models tend to overestimate the observed increase in hot days (about 30% of days on average in 1981–2010 rather than 25%). Similar increases are seen in hot nights (not shown).

FIGURE 4: Contribution to total annual rainfall from very wet days (‘extreme rainfall’ and ‘flood risk’), 1900–2100

Under a high emissions scenario, the proportion of total annual rainfall from very wet days  5 5The proportion (%) of annual rainfall totals that falls during very wet days, defined as days that are at least as wet as the historically 5% wettest of all days. (about 28% for 1981–2010) could decrease a little by the end-of-century (to about 23% on average with an uncertainty range of about 5% to 45%), with little change if emissions decrease rapidly. Total annual rainfall is projected to decrease (Figure 2).

FIGURE 5: Standardized Precipitation Index (‘drought’), 1900–2100

The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is a widely used drought index which expresses rainfall deficits/excesses over timescales ranging from 1 to 36 months (here 12 months, i.e. SPI12). Under a high emissions scenario, SPI12 values are projected to decrease to about -0.5 on average by the end of the century (2071–2100), with a number of models indicating substantially larger decreases and hence more frequent and/or intense drought. Year-to-year variability remains large with wet episodes continuing to occur into the future.  6 6SPI is unitless but can be used to categorize different severities of drought (wet): above +2.0 extremely wet; +2.0 to +1.5 severely wet; +1.5 to +1.0 moderately wet; +1.0 to +0.5 slightly wet; +0.5 to -0.5 near normal conditions; -0.5 to -1.0 slight drought; -1.0 to -1.5 moderate drought; -1.5 to -2.0 severe drought; below -2.0 extreme drought.

These findings underscore the importance of the government’s commitment to adapting the water sector. Drought is already a common experience in Antigua and Barbuda. The probability of at least one (moderate or serious or severe drought) in a year is 45.1%, and in 5 years is 95.0%. For severe droughts alone, the probability of at least one in a year is 15.1% and at least one in 5 years 56.0% (5).

In recent years Antigua and Barbuda has experienced significant drought conditions. The year 2015 was the driest on record at rainfall stations in many Caribbean islands, including Antigua, and drought conditions with some short periods of relief persisted until August 2016. The 2014–16 drought periods led to decreases in agricultural production and reduced local food supply in Antigua and Barbuda. Water shortages forced water rationing. The Potworks Dam in Antigua was only 10% full by the end of 2014, and by the end of 2015, consumption of desalinated water was greater than 90%, compared with the normal 60% (6).

Tropical cyclones

Tropical cyclones have made landfall in Antigua and Barbuda on multiple occasions. Hurricanes can occur from June to November; historically, the most likely time is mid-August to mid-September. On average, there is a 33% chance of at least one hurricane affecting (passing within 120 miles) of Antigua and Barbuda in any given year or roughly once every three years (7).

The year 2017 was exceptional as Antigua and Barbuda was affected by three major hurricanes: Irma, Jose and Maria. Hurricane Irma was the strongest storm ever to hit the Caribbean Leeward Islands. It reached its maximum intensity on 5 September 2017 and continued with this intensity – with windspeed of 155 knots (178 mph/ 287 kmph) – when it made landfall on Barbuda on 6 September (9). This hurricane damaged or destroyed almost all infrastructure in Barbuda, forcing evacuation of the population (10). By the end of 2018, only some residents of Barbuda had returned. The recovery needs assessment conducted in partnership with the World Bank concludes that the total damage of the hurricanes Irma and Maria for Antigua and Barbuda comes to EC$ 367.5 million (US$ 136.1 million), while losses amount to approximately EC$ 51.2 million (US$ 18.9 million). Recovery needs amount to EC$ 600.1 million (US$ 222.2 million) (11).

It is anticipated that the total number of tropical cyclones may decrease towards the end of the century. However, it is likely that human-induced warming will make cyclones more intense (an increase in wind speed of 2–11% for a mid-range scenario (i.e. RCP4.5 which lies between RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 – shown on pages 4/5) or about 5% for 2˚C global warming). There are better than even odds that the most intense events (category 4 and 5) will become more frequent (although these projections are particularly sensitive to the spatial resolution of the models). It is also likely that average precipitation rates within 100 km of the storm centre will increase – by a maximum of about 10% per degree of warming. Such increases in the rainfall rate would be exacerbated if tropical cyclone translation speeds continue to slow (12–20).

TABLE 1: Hurricanes that have affected Antigua and Barbuda, 1998–2018

Sea level rise

Sea level rise is one of the most significant threats to low-lying areas on small islands and atolls. Research indicates that rates of global mean sea level rise are almost certainly accelerating as a result of climate change. The relatively long response times to global warming mean that sea level will continue to rise for a considerable time after any reduction in emissions.

The average change in Caribbean sea level over the period 1993–2010 (21) is projected at 1.7 mm/year (± 1.3), with substantial spatial variability across the region. A further 0.4–0.5m rise is expected in the Caribbean by the end of the century (22) with variation amongst models and emissions scenarios.

Potential impacts of sea level rise include:

  • Coastal erosion
  • Ecosystem disruption
  • Higher storm surges
  • Population displacement
  • Water contamination and disruption
  • Mental health

Health Impacts of Climate Change

National Response

Health System Capacity and Adaptation: Monitoring Progress

The following section measures progress in the health sector in responding to climate threats based on country reported data collected in the 2021 WHO Health and Climate Change Country Survey (46).

Governance and Leadership

National Planning for Health and Climate Change

Question questioncategory question Answer
Has a national health and climate change strategy or plan been developed ? NO
Are the health co-benefits of climate change mitigation action considered in the strategy/plan? N/A
Level of implementation of the strategy/plan? N/A
Portion of estimated costs to implement the strategy/plan covered in the health budget N/A
Are health adaptation priorities identified in the strategy/plan? N/A
Notes
Table Legend: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A).
Definition: In this context, a national strategy or plan is a broad term that includes national health and climate strategies as well as the health component of national adaptation plans (H-NAPs).

Intersectoral Collaboration to Address Climate Change

Is there an agreement in place between the ministry of health and this sector which defines specific roles and responsibilities in relation to links between health and climate change policy?

Question questioncategory question Answer
Is there an agreement in place between the ministry of health and this sector which defines specific roles and responsibilities in relation to links between health and climate change policy? Transportation NO
Is there an agreement in place between the ministry of health and this sector which defines specific roles and responsibilities in relation to links between health and climate change policy? Electricity generation NO
Is there an agreement in place between the ministry of health and this sector which defines specific roles and responsibilities in relation to links between health and climate change policy? Household energy NO
Is there an agreement in place between the ministry of health and this sector which defines specific roles and responsibilities in relation to links between health and climate change policy? Agriculture NO
Is there an agreement in place between the ministry of health and this sector which defines specific roles and responsibilities in relation to links between health and climate change policy? Social services NO
Is there an agreement in place between the ministry of health and this sector which defines specific roles and responsibilities in relation to links between health and climate change policy? Water, Sanitation & Waste-water management YES
Notes
Table Legend: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A)
Yes = Specific roles and responsibilities between the national health authority and the sector indicated are defined in the agreement.

Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessments for Health

Question questioncategory question Answer
Has an assessment of health vulnerability and impacts of climate change been conducted at a national level? NO
→ Level of influence of the assessment findings on policy prioritization to address the health risks of climate change N/A
→ Level of influence of the assessment findings on human and financial resource allocation to address the health risks of climate change N/A
Notes
Table Legend:
Question 1: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A)
Questions 2 and 3: None, Minimal, Somewhat, Strong

Climate-sensitive diseases and health outcomes qid Health surveillance system is in place (a) Health surveillance system includes meteorological information (b)
Thermal stress (e.g. heat waves) 22111 YES YES
Vector-borne diseases 22121 YES YES
Foodborne diseases 22131 YES NO
Waterborne diseases 22141 YES NO
Nutrition (e.g. malnutrition associated with extreme-climatic events) 22151 YES
Injuries (e.g. physical injuries or drowning in extreme weather events) 22161 NO NO
Mental health and well-being 22171 YES NO
Airborne and respiratory diseases 22181 YES
Notes
Table Legend: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A)
(a) A positive response indicates that the health surveillance system is in place, it will identify changing health risks or impacts AND it will trigger early action.
(b) Meteorological information refers to either short-term weather information, seasonal climate information OR long-term climate information

Climate hazard qid Health early warning system (HEWS) in place? Health sector response plan in place? Health sector response plan includes meteorological information?
Heat waves 23111 YES YES NO
Storms (e.g. hurricanes, monsoons, typhoons) 23131 YES YES YES
Flooding 23141 YES YES YES
Drought 23161 YES YES YES
Air quality (e.g. particulate matter, ozone levels) 23171
Notes
Table Legend: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A)

Human Resource Capacity

Question questioncategory question Answer
Is there a national curriculum developed to train health personnel on the health impacts of climate change? NO
Does your human resource capacity as measured through the International Health Regulations Monitoring Framework (IHR) adequately consider the human resource requirements to respond to climate-related events? Partially
Notes
Table Legend: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A)

Health Care Facilities, Infrastructure and Technology

Question questioncategory question Answer
Has there been a national assessment of the climate resilience of health infrastructure and technology?
Have measures been taken to increase the climate resilience of health infrastructure and technology?
Is there a national initiative/programme in place to promote the use of low-carbon, energy-efficient, sustainable technologies in the health sector?
Notes:
Table Legend: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A)

Finance

Question questioncategory question Answer
Is your government currently accessing international funds to support climate change and health work? YES
Notes:
Table Legend: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A)

Funding Challenges

Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds

Question questioncategory question Answer
Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds Lack of information on the opportunities YES
Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds Lack of country eligibility
Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds Lack of connection by health actors to climate change processes YES
Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds Lack of capacity to prepare country proposals YES
Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds Lack of success in submitted applications
Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds None (no challenges/challenges were minimal)
Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds Not applicable
Greatest challenges faced in accessing international climate funds Other (please specify)
Notes:
Table Legend: Yes (√) / No (X) / Unknown/Not applicable (N/A)

Opportunities for Action

Develop and Implement a Health and Climate Change Strategy/Plan for Antigua and Barbuda

Develop and implement a national health and climate change plan, ensuring that adaptation priorities are specified, health co-benefits from mitigation and adaptation measures are considered, necessary budget requirements are allocated, and regular monitoring and review of progress will support its full implementation. Involve departments and ministries responsible for health and health-determining sectors, as well as private sector, nongovernmental organizations and civil society stakeholders in the development and implementation of the plan.

Assessing Health Vulnerability, Impacts and Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change

Conduct a national assessment of climate change impacts, vulnerability and adaptation for health. Ensure that results of the assessment are used for policy prioritization and the allocation of human and financial resources in the health sector.

Address Barriers to Accessing International Climate Change Finance to Support Health Adaptation

The main barriers have been identified as a lack of information on the opportunities and a lack of capacity to prepare country proposals.

Build Climate-Resilient Health Care Facilities

Measures can be taken to prevent the potentially devastating impacts of climate change on health service provision, including; conducting hazard assessments, climate-informed planning and costing, strengthening structural safety, contingency planning for essential systems (electricity, heating, cooling, ventilation, water supply, sanitation services, waste management and communications). A commitment towards low-emission, sustainable practices to improve system stability, promote a healing environment and to mitigate climate change impacts can also be taken.

Develop Intersectoral Partnerships to Address Food and Water Security and Safety Challenges

Alliances can be formed between the Ministry of Health and the Environment and ministries/ departments responsible for food and water safety and security (e.g. public works, agriculture, trade) and monitoring and response to meteorological and environmental threats (e.g. Meteorological Services and National Office of Disaster Services). These may be supplemented by international and local partnerships to develop and implement strategies to address food and water vulnerabilities to climate change and develop vibrant and effective models of operation and structural resilience.

Resources

Evidence

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Research

Ciguatera fish poisoning and sea surface temperatures in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies

EN

Tester PA, Feldman RL, Nau AW, Kibler SR, Wayne Litaker R

Research

Climate change and Caribbean hurricanes

EN

Jury M

Research

Determinants of the lethality of climate-related disasters in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM): A cross-country analysis

EN

Andrewin AN, Rodriguez-Llanes JM, Guha-Sapir D

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